industrial  and 
nmercial  Schools 

of  the 

!  ted  States  and  Germany 


ierick  William  Roman 


If! 


The  Industrial 

and 

Commercial  Schools 

of  the 

United  States  and  Germany 

A  Comparative  Study 


By 

Frederick  William  Roman 

Ph.D.  (Berlin) 

Professor  of  Economics  in  Syracuse  University 


G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons 

New   York  and  London 

Gbe    imicfterbocfcer.     ipress 

1915 


Copyright.  19 15 

EY 

FREDERICK  WILLIAM  ROMAN 


TIbe  Ifcnlcfccrbocfccr  press,  "Flew  L'orfc 


E)eDfcateD 

TO 

My  Teacher  and  Friend 
JOHN  WILLIAM  WITHERS 


333873 


PREFACE 

THE  conception  of  this  work  dates  from  the 
autumn  of  1907,  when  the  author  was  a 
member  of  the  faculty  of  the  State  Normal  School, 
Bowling  Green,  Ky.  At  that  time,  the  author 
received  a  commission  from  Governor  Beckham  of 
the  Commonwealth  of  Kentucky,  "  to  investigate 
and  report  on  the  German  School  System  to  the 
State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. " 

The  study  and  investigation  covered  a  period  of 
two  and  one-half  years. 

Besides  visiting  the  schools  in  all  of  the  leading 
German  States,  the  author  enjoyed  the  exceptional 
privilege  of  pursuing  a  regular  course  on  the  pur- 
poses and  methods  of  the  continuation  schools 
of  Prussia,  which  course  was  given  in  the  summer 
of  1909  in  Berlin  by  Dr.  Kuhne  of  the  Prussian 
Ministry  of  Commerce  and  Industry. 

The  results  of  this  investigation  were  first 
published  in  Germany  in  October,  1910,  under  the 
title,  Die  deutschen  gewerblichen  und  kaufmdnni- 
schen  Fortbildungs-  und  Fachschulen  und  die  industri- 
ellen  und  kommerziellen  Schulen  in  den  Vereinigten 
Staaten,  Ein  Vergleich  (Leipzig).  This  work  has 
been  used  as  the  basis  of  the  present  volume, 
though  certain  material  additions  have  been  made 
since  the  original  issue. 


vi  Preface 

For  the  successful  completion  of  his  under- 
taking, the  author  is  greatly  indebted  to  many 
educators  and  officials  in  both  Germany  and  the 
United  States.  He  wishes  to  take  this  occasion 
to  express  his  deep  gratitude  to  the  Baroness  Elly 
von  Rossing,  who  by  virtue  of  her  long  connection 
with  the  celebrated  Victoria  Fortbildungs-  und 
Fachschule  of  Berlin,  was  able  to  give  most  valu- 
able assistance  and  counsel. 

Vocational  education  has  made  great  strides 
since  the  appearance  of  the  German  edition.  To 
Professor  Frank  M.  Leavitt  of  the  University  of 
Chicago  the  author  is  largely  indebted  for  infor- 
mation on  recent  progress  and  the  present  status  of 
vocational  education  in  the  United  States. 

In  Chapter  XIX.  has  been  incorporated  much 
of  the  material  that  the  author  contributed  to  the 
issues  for  February  and  June,  1913,  of  the  Ele- 
mentary School  Teacher. 

The  author  is  under  many  obligations  to  Mrs. 
Kathryne  Handforth,  who  was  formerly  associated 
with  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Education, 
for  valuable  suggestions  affecting  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  manuscript  and  for  the  reading  of  the 
same. 

F.  W.  R. 

Syracuse,  New  York, 
September,  1914. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  I 

The  Character,  Quantity,  and  Quality  of 
the   Literary  Education  in  the   United 
States  and  Germany  as  a  Basis  for  Indus- 
trial and  Commercial  Training      .         .         i 
i.     The  Public  Schools  in  Germany       .         3 

(a)  Length  of  a  School  Year,  Number 

of  School  Hours  a  Week.  .  4 

(b)  Separate  Instruction  of  Sexes.      .  4 

(c)  Course  of  Study.         ...  4 

(d)  Instruction    after  Completion  of 

the  Public  School  Course.        .         6 

(e)  Preparation  of  the  Teachers.        .         6 

(f)  Higher  Schools.  ...         7 

2.  Public  Schools  in  the  United  States        8 

(a)  Organization      ....  8 

(b)  School  Attendance  Laws.    .  .         9 

(c)  Enforcement   of    School   Attend- 

ance Laws.    .  .  .  .10 

(d)  Grades    Reached    by     Children 

before     Leaving     the     Public 
Schools.         .  .  .  .13 

3.  Comparison  with  Germany     .         .       16 

(a)  Attendance.       .  .  .  .16 

(b)  Illiteracy    of    the    two    nations 

compared.     ....       23 
vii 


viii  Contents 


(c)  Comparison  of  the  Teaching  Staff 

of  the  Two  Countries.    .  .       25 

(d)  Goal  of  the  Schools.  ...       27 

CHAPTER  II 

An  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Beginnings  of 
the  Industrial  and  Commercial  Contin- 
uation Schools  before  the  '"Seventies."      32 

1.  Continuation    Schools   a   Sign    of 

Advancing  Culture  32 

2.  The   Transition  of  the  Old  Time 

Sunday  School  to  One  of  a  More 
Literary  and  Industrial  Type  .       33 

(a)  Social  Revolution.      ...       34 

(b)  The  Influence  of  Famine.     .  .       35 

(c)  The   Antiquated    Apprenticeship 

System  Superseded  by  a  new 
Form  of  Technical  Training.   .       35 

(d)  Political  Reorganizations,  as  well 

as  new  Inventions,  the  Incen- 
tives of  Innovation  in  Con- 
tinuation School  Development.       36 

3.  Brief  Survey  of  the  Development 

of  the  Continuation   Schools  in 
the  Leading  German  States       .       37 

A.     Wurttemberg    .  .  .  .  -37 

(a)  Origin  and  Growth  of  the  Move- 

ment before  the  Dispensation 

of  1836 37 

(b)  The  Law  of  1836.       ...  38 

(c)  The  Royal  Commission  of  1853.  .  38 

(d)  Continuation  Schools  for  Girls.    .  41 


Contents 

IX 

PAGE 

(e)     Teachers  ..... 

41 

(f)     Economic    Conditions    and    Con- 

tinuation    Schools     in      their 

Reciprocal  Relation. 

41 

B. 

Bavaria    ...... 

43 

C. 

Baden      ...... 

44 

D. 

Saxony    ...... 

46 

E. 

Prussia    ...... 

48 

(a)     Character  of  the  First  Schools.    . 

48 

(b)     Attempts  of  the  Minister  of  Edu- 

cation to  Foster  Continuation 

Schools.         .... 

49 

(c)     The  Moderate  Results. 

50 

(d)     The  Schools  with  Special  Refer- 

ence to  Berlin. 

53 

4- 

The  Situation  in  General  before 

the  '"Seventies." 

58 

CHAPTER  III 

Industrial  and  Commercial  Schools  Since 

the 

Founding  of  the  Empire.    . 

60 

1. 

Transition  to  a  New  Era. 

60 

2. 

The  Condition  of    the  Industrial 

Schools  About  1877.  . 

66 

3- 

The    Development  of    Commercial 

Schools        

67 

4- 

General  Survey  of  the  Laws  in  the 

Leading  States.  .... 

69 

(a)     Wiirttemberg.    .... 

72 

(b)     Bavaria    ..... 

73 

(c)     Baden.      ..... 

73 

(d)     Saxony.    . 

74 

Contents 


(e)  Hessen.     .....       75 

(f)  Prussia.     .....       75 

CHAPTER  IV 


Distribution  of  Continuation  Schools  for 
Boys,  and  Means  of  Support. 

1 .  WtJRTTEMBERG. 

2.  Bavaria. 

3.  Baden.     . 

4.  Saxony.  . 

5.  Prussia.  . 

6.  Summary  of  the  Various  Modes  of 

Financial  Support. 

7.  The  Results  of  Compulsory  Attend 

ance    . 

CHAPTER  V 


77 
77 
78 

79 
81 

83 
86 

87 


Continuation  Schools  for  Girls.  .         .       89 

1.  Sketch   of    Their    Historical    De- 

velopment. .....       89 

2.  Present  Day  Demands.    ...       90 

3.  The   Necessity   of   Industrial  and 

Commercial  Continuation  Schools 
for  Girls  from  the  Standpoint 
of  Statistics.       ....       94 

4.  The  Present  Status  of  Industrial 

Training  for  Girls.    ...       95 

(a)  Wurttemberg.    ....       95 

(b)  Bavaria.   .....       96 

(c)  Baden.      .  .  .  -97 


Contents  xi 

PAGE 

(d)  Saxony.    .....       98 

(e)  Prussia.         .      .  .  .  -99 

(f)  In  the  Whole  Empire.  .  .100 

5.  Trade  Schools  for  the  Furtherance 

of  Home  Industry.      .         .         .103 

6.  Compulsory   Continuation  Schools 

for  Girls.   .....     107 

7.  Co-Education.  .  no 

CHAPTER  VI 

Trade  Schools.    .         .         .         .         .         .119 

1.  Characteristics    and    Distribution 

of  this  Type  of  Schools.    .         .119 

2.  Attendance    and    Growth    in    the 

Leading  States.  .         .         .121 

(a)  In  Prussia.         .  .  .  .121 

(1)  Schools  for  Building  Trades.     121 

(2)  Trade    Schools     for     Metal 

Workers.  .  .  .121 

(3)  Pottery     Schools     and     Art 

Industrial  Schools.  .      123 

(4)  Trade  Schools  for  the  Textile 

Industry.         .  .  .124 

(a)  Higher  Trade  Schools  for 
Textile  Industry.     .  .124 

(b)  The  Lower  Trade  Schools 

for  Textile  Industry.         .      125 

(b)  In  Saxony.         .  .  .  .125 

3.  Growth  as   Compared  with   Other 

Schools        .         .         .         .         .127 

4.  Opposition  to  the  further   Exten- 

sion of  these  Schools.  .         .128 


xii  Contents 


CHAPTER  VII 

Internal  Organization.        .         .         .         .130 

1.  School    Buildings    and    Teaching 

Apparatus  .         .         .         .         .130 

2.  Curriculum 132 

(a)  The  Sunday  School.   .  .  .132 

(b)  The  General  Continuation  School.     132 

(c)  The  Industrial  and   Commercial 

Continuation  School.      .  .      133 

3.  School  Hours.  .         .         .         .142 

(a)  Sunday  and  Evening  Hours.         .      142 

(b)  Transition    to    Daytime    Week- 

Day  Instruction.    .  .  .      144 

CHAPTER  VIII 

Teachers 147 

1.  Shall   Teachers  be   Appointed  for 

Full  Time  or  Part  Time  or  Shall 
Men  of  Practical  Experience 
be  Appointed?     .         .         .         .147 

2.  Organization  for  the  Professional 

Training  of  Teachers.         .         .153 

CHAPTER  IX 

Introduction  to  the  History  of  the  Ameri- 
can Commercial  and  Industrial  Schools     158 

CHAPTER  X 

Schools  Established  by  Endowment.   .         .     161 

1.  New  York  Trade  School.       .         .     161 

2.  Pratt  Institute 164 


Contents  xiii 


Schools  Established    by    State    Aid    and 
Appropriations  from  the  Municipality. 
i.    Textile  Schools.     . 

2.  Technical  Schools. 

3.  Economic   Importance    of    Textile 

Schools 


PAGE 


3.  Baron  de  Hirsch  Trade  School.     .     167 

4.  Williamson      Free      School      of 

Mechanical  Trades.    .         .         .168 

5.  California  School  of  Mechanical 

Arts 174 

6.  The  Wilmerding  School  of  Indus- 

trial Art.  .         .         .         .         .177 

7.  The  Hebrew  Technical  Institute.     178 

8.  Miller  Manual  Labor  School.       .     179 

9.  Webb's    Academy   and    Home    for 

Shipbuilders.       .         .         .         .180 

10.  Drexel  Institute.  .         .         .181 

11.  Spring  Garden  Institute.       .         .182 

12.  General    Society    of     Mechanics 

and  Tradesmen.  .         .         .183 

13.  Mechanics  Institute.     .         .         .186 

14.  Cooper  Union.       ....     187 

15.  Hebrew    Technical    School    for 

Girls. 191 

16.  Manhattan  Trade  School  for  Girls     193 

17.  Comparison  with  Germany.    .         .194 

CHAPTER  XI 


200 
200 
207 

209 


xiv  Contents 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  XII 
Schools  Established  by  Charity.  .         .211 

CHAPTER  XIII 

The   Young    Men's  Christian   Association 
Schools 215 

CHAPTER  XIV 

The  Young  Women's  Christian  Association 
Schools    .         .         .         .         .         .         .     222 

CHAPTER  XV 

Private  Industrial  Schools.         .         .         .  227 

1.  Brewing  Schools.    ....  227 

2.  Other  Types  of  Private  Schools.     .  231 

CHAPTER  XVI 
Correspondence  Schools.     ....     234 

CHAPTER  XVII 

Commercial  Schools.   .....     244 

1.  Early    History   and    Methods    of 

Getting  Pupils.  ....     244 

2.  The   Present   Status   of   Business 

Colleges,  Commercial  High 
Schools  and  Commercial  Depart- 
ments of  High  Schools,  and 
Normal  Schools.  .         .         .     250 

3.  Some      Comparisons      Made      with 

Germany.     .....  256 

(a)  The  Curriculum.         .          .          .  256 

(b)  The  Preparation  of  the  Teachers.  260 

(c)  The  Relation  of  Business  Educa- 

tion to  Industry  and  Commerce.     261 


Contents  xv 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

Transition  to  the  Public  Industrial  Con- 
tinuation Schools.  .         .         .         .         .264 

1.  Dissatisfaction  with  the  Present 

School  System 264 

2.  Enthusiasm  for  Industrial  Training.    270 

3.  A  Comparison  of  the  Difficulties 

Encountered  in  the  Erection  and 
Further  Development  of  Indus- 
trial Schools  in  the  Two 
Countries 282 

(a)  Attitude  of  Labor  Organizations.     282 

(b)  Education  for  the  Negroes.  .     295 

(c)  Over  Education.  .  .  .     299 

CHAPTER  XIX 

Control  and  Organization  of  the  Schools 
in  the  Two  Countries   Contrasted  and 

Compared.         ......  304 

1.  Difference  in  Government.     .         .  304 

2.  In  the  United  States.      .         .         .  306 

3.  In  Germany.    .....  323 

CHAPTER  XX 
Economic  Importance.  ....     348 

CHAPTER  XXI 

Importance  Attached  to  Morals  and  Habits 
as  a  Factor  in  the  Industrial  and 
Commercial  School  Development.  .         .     369 


The    Industrial     and    Commercial 

Schools  of  the  United  States 

and  Germany 


THE  CHARACTER,  QUANTITY,  AND  QUALITY  OF  THE 
LITERARY  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 
AND  GERMANY  AS  A  BASIS  FOR  INDUSTRIAL 
AND  COMMERCIAL  TRAINING 

GENERAL  education  is  fundamental  to  indus- 
trial and  commercial  education.  The 
former  holds  the  same  relation  to  the  latter  as  does 
the  soil  to  the  harvest.  Upon  the  plan,  quantity, 
quality,  and  ideal  of  the  first,  the  second  must 
necessarily  be  constructed.  One  deals  with  books ; 
the  other  with  life.  One  concerns  itself  with 
principles  and  theory ;  the  other  with  practice  and 
application.  Each  is  the  complement  of  the  other. 
We  know  well  that  the  educational  institutions 
of  a  people  are  reflections  of  its  culture,  civiliza- 
tion, and  ideals.     Germany  has  its  own  unique 


2        Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

school  type,  which  is  the  product  of  the  environ- 
ment and  historic  achievements  of  Central  Europe 
for  more  than  a  thousand  years,  while  that  of  the 
United  States  is  the  product  of  a  combination  of 
the  culture  of  half  a  dozen  European  nationalities. 
It  is  very  easy  to  realize  that  such  a  collection  of 
forces  and  influences,  transplanted  to  a  new  world, 
and  under  different  geographic,  climatic,  economi- 
cal, and  sociological  conditions  would  produce  a 
school  system  entirely  unlike  anything  found  in 
the  Old  World. 

To  contrast  and  compare  the  industrial  and 
commercial  schools  of  the  two  countries,  therefore, 
we  must  first  outline  the  training  that  has  preceded. 
As  one  government  is  a  monarchy  and  the  other 
a  republic,  the  respective  school  systems  are  made 
to  articulate  in  the  scheme  of  government.  The 
goal  set  for  the  child  just  entering  school,  the 
management  of  the  sexes,  and  the  great  social, 
economic,  and  religious  differences — all  contribute 
to  a  material  difference  in  the  German  and  Ameri- 
can school  systems.  Children  trained  under  such 
diverging  conditions  will  necessarily  be  in  an  en- 
tirely different  frame  of  mind  by  the  time  they 
reach  their  fourteenth  year,  the  age  at  which  the 
greater  part  of  those  who  take  up  industrial  or 
commercial  training  begin  their  vocational  studies. 

Hence,  before  taking  up  the  main  subject,  we 
shall  trace  the  chief  characteristics  of  German  and 
American  schools  with  special  reference  to  the 
preparation  that  the  children  secure  for  industrial 


Character,  Quantity,  and  Quality      3 

and  commercial  work.  A  detailed  description  of 
the  public  schools  of  the  two  countries  cannot  be 
given,  and  not  even  a  complete  criticism  will  be 
offered  here.  Yet  there  are  certain  underlying 
facts,  ideals,  and  conditions  so  insistently  obvious 
in  both  countries  that  a  comparison  of  schools 
is  impossible  without  due  recognition  of  these 
features.  To  decide  the  advantage  or  disadvan- 
tage they  exercise  upon  the  industrial  and  commer- 
cial courses  succeeding  the  public  school  course, 
and  the  influence  they  have  upon  the  economic  and 
social  power  of  the  nation  is  in  certain  respects 
an  easy  task,  while  in  others  the  decision  must  be 
left  to  personal  opinion. 

1.  The  Public  Schools  in  Germany.  At  the 
base  of  the  whole  gigantic  German  school  system 
lie  the  "public  schools,"  which  were  attended  in 
1900  by  8.9  millions  or  90.8  per  cent,  of  all  the 
children  between  the  ages  of  six  and  fourteen  years. z 
The  remaining  9.2  per  cent,  attended  middle, 
higher,  and  private  schools. 

The  middle  and  higher  schools  are  not  con- 
secutive classes,2  but  are  parallel  with  the  public 
schools.  They  are  established  in  large  cities  only. 
A  tuition  fee  is  required,  and  the  chief  distinction 
is  a  division  based  on  money  and  social  position. 

1  Lexis,  Das  Unterrichtswesen  im  Deutschen  Reich,  vol.  iii.,  p.  57. 

3  Tuition  is  free  in  the  public  schools  of  Prussia,  while  in  the 
middle  schools  tuition  is  charged.  In  Saxony,  on  the  other 
hand,  tuition  is  charged  in  the  public  schools  except  in  special 
cases  of  poverty. 


4        Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

Their  curricula  are  arranged  somewhat  with  a 
view  toward  a  more  direct  preparation  for  the 
higher  institutions.  School  attendance  for  all 
children  between  the  ages  of  six  or  seven  and  four- 
teen years  is  compulsory,  and  the  law  is  strictly 
enforced. 

(a)  Length  of  School  Year,  Number  of  School 
Hours  a  Week.  The  number  of  school  weeks  in 
the  year,  the  number  of  hours  for  each  grade,  and 
the  subjects  pursued  by  the  various  grades  vary 
slightly  in  the  different  states;  also  there  are  some 
differences  in  these  respects  to  be  noted  even  in 
the  same  state  when  a  comparison  is  made  be- 
tween the  city  and  the  village  schools.  School 
is  in  session  forty  to  forty-two  weeks  in  the 
year,  and  the  number  of  school  hours  in  the  week 
ranges  from  twenty  to  twenty-two  in  the  lower 
grades  and  averages  about  thirty  in  the  upper 
grades. 

(b)  Separate  Instruction  of  the  Sexes.  As  a  rule 
the  sexes  are  taught  separately.  However,  in 
communities  where  the  Catholic  and  Protestant 
religions  are  both  represented,  it  is  thought  more 
important  to  separate  the  children  on  the  basis  of 
religious  affiliation,  even  if  by  so  doing  it  becomes 
necessary  to  establish  co-educational  schools  be- 
cause of  the  small  number  in  attendance. ' 

(c)  Course  of  Study.  According  to  Lexis  (vol. 
iv.)   the  hours  spent  each  week  on  the  various 

1  Lexis,  Das  Volkschulwesen  und  das  LehrerbUdungswesen,  vol. 
iii.,  p.  109. 


Character,  Quantity,  and  Quality      5 

subjects    and    in    the    different    grades    are    as 
follows : 


LOWER 

GRADES 

MIDDLE   GRADES 

UPPER  GRADES 

Schools 
with 

Schools 
with 

Schools 
with 

Schools 

with 

Schools 
with 

Schools 
with 

one 
teacher 

more 
than  one 
teacher 

one 
teacher 

more 
than  one 
teacher 

one 

teacher 

more 
than  one 
teacher 

Religion 
German 
Arithmetic 
Drawing 
Nature  Study- 
Singing 

4 
II 

4 

4 
11 

4 

1 

5-6 
10-9 

4 
1 
6 
1 

4 

8 

4 
2 
6 
2 

5-6 
8-7 
5 
2 
6 
2 

4 
8 
6 

6(8) 
2 

Gymnasium  ) 
Handwork     ) 

— 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

20 

22 

30 

28 

30 

30  (32) 

The  above  table  does  not  take  into  account  the 
recent  introduction  of  instruction  in  cooking  for 
girls.  Such  instruction  was  given  in  the  last 
grade1  in  161  cities  during  the  year  19 10,  the  aver- 
age time  devoted  to  such  classes  being  four  hours 
a  week. 

According  to  the  statistics  in  1901  there  were 
in  Prussia: 


In  the  cities 
In  the  country- 


Mixed  Classes 


9,337 
60,385 


Boys'  Classes 


i,34i 
3,969 


Girls'  Classes 


13,255 

3,995 


1  In  many  cities  girls  have  instruction  in  cooking  during  the 
last  three  grades. 


6       Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

In  Bavaria  there  were  in  the  school  year  1889- 
1900: 

6,318  Mixed  Schools 

115  Partly  Mixed  Schools 

457  Boys'  Schools 

463  Girls'  Schools 

In  the  boys'  schools  there  is  a  tendency  to 
introduce  increasingly  the  so-called  manual  train- 
ing. In  the  city  of  Mannheim  40  per  cent,  of  all 
the  pupils  that  are  entitled  to  such  instruction 
have  availed  themselves  of  the  opportunity.  Two 
municipal  schools  in  Berlin  have  introduced  manual 
training  since  1909.  Kerschensteiner's  workshops 
in  Munich  are  deservedly  famous  throughout 
Germany,  and  it  appears  as  if  all  other  German 
cities  will  gradually  follow  this  example. 

(d)  Instruction  after  the  Completion  of  the  Public 
School  Course.  After  the  public-school  course  has 
been  completed,  practically  all  the  boys  and  girls 
seek  some  kind  of  employment  which  will  enable 
them  to  become  as  nearly  self-supporting  as  pos- 
sible. They  still  enjoy  certain  educational  ad- 
vantages in  the  continuation  schools,  which,  if 
one  except  those  resident  in  certain  less  densely 
settled  land  districts,  are  accessible  to  all.  In  this 
way  education  is  prolonged  two  or  three  years. ■ 

(e)  Preparation  of  the  Teachers.  In  the  elemen- 
tary and  middle  schools,  both  public  and  private, 
we  find  teachers  of  practically  equal  qualifications, 

1  In  some  cities  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  extend  the 
continuation  school  period  to  cover  four  years. 


Character,  Quantity,  and  Quality      7 

all  of  whom  have  had  at  least  six  years  of  special 
training  in  what  would  correspond  to  our  normal 
schools. x 

(/)  Higher  Schools.  The  higher  schools  for 
boys  are  either  humanistische  Gytnnasien,  Real- 
gyrnnasien,  or  realschulen,  according  to  whether 
Greek  and  Latin,  or  only  Latin,  or  neither  Greek 
nor  Latin  but  modern  languages  are  taught. 
These  schools  have  either  six-  or  nine-year  courses, 
and  the  pupils  are  received  from  a  three-year 
preparatory  school  or  from  a  private  school. 
Aside  from  this,  a  certain  percentage  of  the  en- 
rollment leaves  the  public  school  after  four  years 
in  order  to  enter  the  higher  school. 

In  the  smaller  cities  we  find  the  Progymnasien 
or  Realprogyrnnasien.  These  institutions  consist 
of  five  grades,  and  pupils  are  prepared  to  enter  the 
first  grade  after  the  third  or  fourth  year's  attend- 
ance at  public  school. 

Whether  a  child  can  attend  a  higher  school 

1  In  Bavaria  and  Wurttemberg,  the  teachers  have  but  five 
years'  training,  but  an  effort  is  on  foot  which  will  eventually  add 
an  additional  year.  Then,  too,  the  women  teachers,  who  form 
17^%  of  the  whole  teaching  force  in  Germany  have  not,  as  a  rule, 
had  a  full  six-year  seminary  training,  inasmuch  as  their  previous 
preparation  was  secured  in  a  hohere  Tochterschule,  which  has 
higher  courses  than  the  public  school.  In  consequence,  one 
notices  that,  on  the  average,  the  women  teachers  come  from 
more  affluent  families  than  the  men.  But  the  tendency  in  this 
direction,  too,  is  to  make  the  preparation  of  the  women  uniform 
with  that  of  the  men.  Seminars  with  six-year  courses  for  girls 
who  have  just  completed  the  public  school  course,  are  gradually 
superseding  the  older  forms. 


8        Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

depends  largely  upon  the  wealth  and  social  posi- 
tion of  the  family.  The  particular  division  to 
which  he  is  sent  depends  upon  the  ambitions  of 
the  parents,  capabilities  of  the  child,  and  the  finan- 
cial ability  of  the  parents  to  pay  for  a  longer  or  a 
shorter  course. 

In  Prussia  a  new  law  was  passed  in  April,  1909, 
affecting  the  higher  schools  for  girls,  which  pro- 
vided a  uniform  entrance  requirement  and  made 
possible  a  large  degree  of  elective  work  in  the  later 
years.  After  completing  the  lower  grades  and 
part  of  the  middle  grades  a  girl  can  enter  a  human- 
istisches,  a  Realgymnasien,  or  a  Reals chule  (pat- 
terned after  the  boys'school),  or  she  may  complete 
a  ten-grade  higher  school  for  girls,  which  will 
prepare  her  to  enter  a  teachers'  seminar  (with 
four-year  course)  or  a  school  for  women  (Frauen- 
schule),  a  sort  of  higher  continuation  institution. 

2.    Public  Schools  in  the  United  States,     (a) 

Organization.  The  whole  school  system  in  the 
United  States  lacks  the  uniformity  of  that  of 
Germany.  But  in  general  one  may  say  that  the 
public-school  system  resolves  itself  into  two  divi- 
sions ;  the  rural-school  system  and  the  city  schools. 
In  the  country  the  child  usually  enters  school  at 
the  age  of  six,  and  no  maximum  age  is  fixed  de- 
barring from  further  school  attendance.  For 
that  reason  it  is  not  seldom  that  one  finds  pupils 
in  the  rural  schools  who  have  reached  their  twenty- 
first  year.     The  majority  of  rural  schools  are  not 


Character,  Quantity,  and  Quality      9 

graded  throughout;  therefore,  a  pupil  may  be  in 
several  grades  at  the  same  time,  according  to  his 
degree  of  proficiency  in  the  several  subjects  taught. 
The  graded  schools  have  an  eight-year  course, 
which  prepares  the  pupil  for  entrance  to  a  high 
school  of  a  neighboring  city  or  to  the  county  high 
school. 

The  city  schools  have  a  regular  eight-  or  nine- 
year  course,  called  grammar  school.  Entrance 
to  the  grammar  school  is  sometimes  preceded  by 
attendance  at  a  kindergarten,  which  is  not  always 
connected,  however,  with  the  public  schools.  After 
a  pupil  has  completed  the  grammar  school,  he  is 
prepared  to  enter  high  school,  which  extends  over 
a  period  of  four  years.  In  the  larger  cities  a 
certain  percentage  of  the  pupils  attend  private 
grammar  schools  and  private  high  schools,  but 
the  enrollment  in  these  private  schools  is  steadily 
declining  as  compared  with  the  enrollment  in  the 
public  schools. x 

(b)  School  Attendance  Laws.  In  1906,  thirty- 
seven  of  the  forty-six  States  of  the  Union  had  a  law 
establishing  compulsory  attendance  upon  public 
schools.  At  that  time  twenty-one  States  required 
school  attendance  after  the  eighth  year  of  age, 
and  sixteen  after  the  seventh  year  of  age. 

The  duration  of  compulsory  school  attendance 
varied  in  the  several  States.  Maryland  had  the 
shortest,  a  period  of  four  years;  Connecticut  and 

1  In  the  year  1905  the  attendance  at  public  high  schools  was 
722,692,  and  upon  private  high  schools  101,753. 


io      Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

Illinois  the  longest,  extending  for  over  a  period  of 
nine  years.  In  1910,  ten  States  required  school 
attendance  six  years;  twelve  States,  seven  years; 
and  eleven  States,  eight  years. J 

The  number  of  months  during  which  school  is 
in  session  varies  from  two  to  ten. 

(c)  Enforcement  of  School  Attendance  Laws.  But 
in  many  States  this  law  is  not  strictly  enforced.2 

1  1906  Report  of  Commissioner  of  Education,  vol.  ii.,  p.  1271; 
"Unfortunately,  the  actual  average  period  of  school  attendance 
in  our  country  falls  far  below  its  legal  measure.  From  estimates 
continued  for  several  years  in  the  Bureau  of  Education  it  appears 
that  the  average  number  of  years  of  schooling  in  elementary  and 
secondary  schools  supported  by  public  taxes  is  equivalent  to 
4.69  years  of  200  days  for  each  individual  of  the  population.  In 
the  South  Atlantic  division  it  falls  to  3.25  years  of  200  days  each, 
and  in  the  South  Central  division  to  2.91  years. 

"  If  this  average  degree  of  schooling  were  the  actual  experience 
of  every  child,  it  might,  indeed,  suffice  to  keep  down  illiteracy 
which  still  threatens  us  from  the  colored  population  of  the  South, 
from  the  native  white  population  in  regions  poorly  supplied  with 
schools,  and  from  foreign-born  white  laborers  coming  into  the 
States  most  highly  favored  with  schools  and  colleges.  But  this 
average,  as  we  know,  conceals  a  much  lower  degree  of  school 
attendance  for  a  large  proportion  of  the  poorer  children." 

3  A  superintendent  of  one  of  the  large  school  systems  in  Ken- 
tucky told  me  personally  that  he  had  attempted  to  have  the 
compulsory  attendance  law  enforced,  but  he  was  requested  by 
the  board  of  education  not  to  carry  out  the  law  as  it  would  bring 
more  children  into  school  than  the  buildings  could  accommodate, 
and  that  the  city  had,  under  existing  conditions,  enough  expense 
in  affording  instruction  for  those  that  attended  voluntarily.  A 
prominent  school  president  from  Mississippi  wrote  to  me  recently 
that  it  would  be  impossible  to  pass  a  compulsory  attendance  law 
in  his  State,  and  that  such  law  could  not  be  enforced  if  it  were 
passed.  A  short  extract  from  the  State  Superintendent's  report 
for  the  State  of  Kentucky  shows  clearly  the  laxity  in  the  enforce- 


Character,  Quantity,  and  Quality    n 

Considering  all  young  people  between  the  ages 
of  five  and  eighteen  years  as  the  gross  school  pop- 
ulation, in  1906  we  find  16,641,970  pupils  of  all 
ages  enrolled  in  common  schools.     This  is  70.43  per 

ment  of  the  laws  for  compulsory  school  attendance  and  gives  a 
picture  of  school  conditions  prevailing  in  the  whole  State.  Supt. 
Crabbe  says:  "The  State,  with  commendable  liberality,  has  been 
expending  two  millions  or  two  and  a  half  millions  of  money  an- 
nually for  teachers,  yet  the  results  show:  That  no  schoolhouses 
were  building  except  in  rare  cases.  That  the  so-called  buildings 
were  without  furniture  and  equipment.  That  there  were  no 
libraries.  That  more  than  half  the  children  of  school  age  never 
went  to  school  at  all,  and  that  half  of  those  enrolled  in  school 
were  so  irregular  in  attendance  as  to  render  their  schooling  nil. 
That  eight-ninths  of  the  teachers  were  untrained.  That  there 
was  practically  no  supervision,  and  that  in  general,  the  schools  and 
the  quality  of  the  schooling  have  not  become  better  and  their 
product  has  not  been  satisfactory.  What's  the  trouble?  The 
trouble  is  that  the  people  of  the  school  districts  have  been  pauper- 
ized by  reason  of  this  big  sum  of  money  given  by  the  State  and 
the  local  community  has  failed  to  raise  a  single  dollar  for  its  own 
schools." 

Another  excellent  illustration  of  the  laxity  of  enforcement  of 
the  law  may  be  cited.  Kentucky  law  requires  that  children  in 
the  country  attend  eight  weeks,  and  in  the  cities  the  full  term, 
and  also  fixed,  on  the  parent,  a  penalty  of  $5  to  #20  for  failure  to 
obey  the  law.  All  children  come  under  this  law  until  they  are 
fourteen  years  of  age,  unless  they  have  completed  the  eight 
grades  of  the  elementary  school.  Since  1902,  Kentucky  has 
also  had  a  child-labor  law.  Both  laws  make  it  possible  for  the 
superintendent  to  get  the  children  into  school.  Yet  with  what 
laxity  these  laws  are  enforced  is  shown  by  the  careful  statistics 
compiled  by  Annie  A.  Halleck,  who  reports  in  the  Courier  Journal 
for  January  27,  1908,  that  there  were  in  Louisville  in  1908, 
30,064  children  between  the  ages  of  seven  and  fourteen.  On  this 
number  only  25,293  were  enrolled  in  school.  This  shows  that 
there  were  4,771  children  in  Louisville  of  an  age  requiring  their 
attendance  at  school,  who  were  enrolled  in  no  kind  of  school 


12      Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

cent,  of  the  total.  During  that  year,  1905-06, 
the  average  daily  attendance  of  those  enrolled 
was  70.38  per  cent.,  and  the  average  length  of  the 
school  term  was  151  days.  Therefore,  the  aver- 
age number  of  days  attended  by  each  pupil  actu- 
ally enrolled  was  106.  *  and  the  average  number  of 
days'  schooling  for  every  child  from  five  to  eighteen 
years  of  age  in  1905-06  was  only  74.1  days. 

In  1905-06,  in  cities  containing  a  population  of 
8000  or  more,  18.4  per  cent,  of  the  grammar 
school  pupils  attended  private  schools  and  the 
daily  average  of  attendance  of  this  group  is,  there- 
fore, unknown,  but  the  average  attendance  for 
those  in  the  public  school  was  yy.y  per  cent,  of  the 
enrollment.  The  average  length  of  the  school 
term  was  185.9  days,  and  the  average  number  of 
days  attended  by  each  pupil  was  144.5. 2  In  all 
villages  below  4000  population  and  in  the  country 
districts  there  were  enrolled  out  of  the  gross  six- 
teen and  a  half  million  school  population  a  little 
over  eleven  million,  and  the  average  number  of 
days  attended  by  each  was  eighty-seven. 3 

Educational  facilities  in  the  Southern  States  are 
especially  inadequate.4  President  Claxton  made 
the  following  report  at  the  meeting  of  the  Southern 
Educational  Association  held  in  Atlanta,  Decem- 
ber 29,  1908: 

whatever.  Furthermore,  it  was  not  possible  to  determine  whether 
they  were  on  the  streets,  at  work,  or  in  their  homes. 

1  iqo6  Report  of  Commissioner  of  Education,  pp.  293-302. 

■  Ibid.,  p.  337. 

» Ibid.,  preface.  «  See  page  10  of  this  thesis. 


Character,  Quantity,  and  Quality     13 


All  our  Southern  States  have  no  effective  legisla- 
tion for  compulsory  attendance,  thanks  to  our  demo- 
cratic form  of  government!  In  spite  of  our  short 
school  year,  only  about  40  per  cent,  of  all  pupils  of 
school  age  receive  instruction  of  any  kind  whatsoever. 
In  these  States  the  children  actually  attend  school 
forty-five  days  yearly,  and  the  whole  number  of  days 
of  school  attendance  amount  to  about  675. 

(d)  Grades  Reached  by  Children  before  Leaving 
the  Public  School.  The  same  condition  holds  true 
regarding  the  percentage  of  children  completing 
the  grammar  and  later  the  high  schools.  The 
following  cities  have  been  chosen  promiscuously 
to  illustrate  the  degree  of  education  attained  by 
those  enrolled. 

Percentage  Completing  Sixth  and  Eighth  Grades  in 
Typical  Cities 


Los  Angeles,  Cal. . . 

Madison,  Wis 

Boston,  Mass 

Chattanooga,  Tenn, 
Columbus,  Ohio . .  . 
Covington,  Ky .... 

Dayton,  Ohio 

Philadelphia,  Pa. .  . 
Spokane,  Wash..  .  . 
Wheeling,  West  Va 

Lynn,  Mass 

Memphis,  Tenn  . .  . 

Denver,  Colo 

Lexington,  Ky .... 

Paducah,  Ky 

Cincinnati,  Ohio . . . 
Chicago,  111 


45-6 


%    Completing 
Sixth  Grade 

% 

Completing 

Eighth  Grade 

51 

25 

60 

51 

58 

38 

33 

20 

48 

28 

4i 

20 

61 

32 

28 

13 

5o 

30 

26 

12 

77 

43 

11 

7 

61 

32 

32 

14 

38 

23 

44 

21 

50 

29 

26.3 


14      Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 


These  averages  were  computed  from  the  1905-06 
Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  of  the 
U.  S.  A.  If  in  the  compilation  of  this  table, 
cognizance  had  been  taken  of  the  number  who 
receive  no  instruction  at  all,  the  results  would  be 
more  unfavorable  still. 

Commissioner  Draper  of  New  York  reported 
the  school  attendance  of  twenty-five  cities,  selected 
at  random  in  1908,  to  be  as  follows: 

Grades  Reached  by  Pupils  Enrolled  in  25  New  York  Cities 


Grade 

Number  of  Pupils 

Per  Cent. 

First 

24,410 

17,524 
17,028 

I5.9I8 
H,395 
12,464 
IO,I52 
8,517 

IOO 

Second 

82 

Third 

79 

74 
67 

58 
47 
40 

Fourth 

Fifth 

Sixth 

Seventh 

Eighth . .                             

Few  states  in  the  Union  have  a  better  school 
system  than  New  York  State. 

Regarding  the  attendance  at  high  schools,  we 
quote  further  from  Commissioner  Draper : 

It  is  interesting  to  know  what  the  corresponding 
figures  are  for  the  United  States.  For  the  year  1904- 
05,  the  last  at  hand,  the  total  attendance  upon  high 
schools  in  the  United  States  was  876,050.  The  per- 
centage of  years  was, — first  year,  43  per  cent.;  second 
year,  26  percent.;  third  year,  eighteen  per  cent.;  and 
fourth  year,  thirteen  per  cent.1 

1  Draper,  Our  Children,  Our  Schools,  and  Our  Industries. 


Character,  Quantity,  and  Quality     15 

The  majority  of  high-school  students  are  girls, 
and  the  percentage  of  girls  that  graduate  (more 
than  two  to  one)  presents  a  still  greater  proportion 
over  the  percentage  of  boys  that  are  graduated. * 

1  confess  that  it  startles  me  to  find  that  certainly 
not  more  than  two-fifths  and  undoubtedly  not  more 
than  one-third  of  the  children  who  enter  our  element- 
ary schools  ever  finish  them,  and  that  not  one-half  of 
them  go  beyond  the  fifth  or  sixth  grade. 

In  a  late  report  of  the  Bureau  of  Education  we 
note  the  same  problem  discussed. 

How  many  of  the  children  entering  the  elementary 
school  reach  the  high  school?  This  question  is  pro- 
pounded many  times  a  year  to  the  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion. For  several  years  this  Bureau  has  estimated 
that  from  21  to  23  per  cent,  of  the  children  who  enter 
the  schools  will  reach  the  high  school.  An  estimate 
based  upon  the  figures  for  1903  and  191 1  increases 
this  percentage  to  2445  per  cent.2 

It  is  hardly  less  surprising  to  find  only  about  one- 
third  of  the  pupils  who  go  to  the  high  schools  remain 
beyond  the  second  year,  and  that  only  about  one- 
sixth  of  those  who  enter  remain  to  graduate. 

It  all  indicates  that  the  lives  of  children  are  being 
wasted,  that  there  is  a  sad  lack  of  definite  aim  and 
purpose  about  it  all,  and  that  our  educational  plans 
do  not  rationally  meet  our  conditions.3 

xBoys,  37,429;  girls,  51,641;  graduates  in  1907,  boys,  2,424; 
girls,  6,793. 

2  Commissioner  of  Education  Report,  1912,  p.  17. 

*  Draper,  Our  Children,  Our  Schools,  and  Our  Industries. 


16      Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

3.  Comparison  with  Germany.  (a)  Attend- 
ance. German  records  show  that  the  pupils  at- 
tain a  much  higher  grade  before  leaving  school. 
The  following  shows  the  public  school  attendance 
in  Prussia  in  1901 : 


In  Eighth    Grade 

400,000   Pupi 

"  Seventh 

4 

500,000 

"   Sixth 

1 

650,000         " 

"  Fifth 

1 

700,000 

"  Fourth 

< 

750,000 

"  Third 

« 

850,000 

"  Second 

« 

900,000 

"  First 

< 

950,000         " 

53% 
68% 


100% 


The  following  shows  the  attendance  for  the  past 
three  years  in  the  public  schools  of  Chemnitz,  one 
of  the  leading  manufacturing  cities  in  Germany  i1 


Grades  Reached  on  Leaving  the  School 


Enrolled  in  1898 — 4,412  children 


Discharged 

1906 

from 

8th  grade — 2,124 

children 

7th 

1,081 

6th 

577 

5th 

150 

4th 

2 

2d 

1 

child  on  account  of 
physical  defect 

2d 

53 

children  sent  to  school 
for  backward  chil- 
dren 

1st 

15 

• 

Total 

4,003 

children 

Written  communication  from  the  Burgermeister. 


Character,  Quantity,  and  Quality    17 

Grades  Reached  on  Leaving  the  School 

Enrolled  in  1899 — 4,339  children 
Discharged  1907  from  8th  grade — 2,250  children 


7th 

1,024 

6th 

523 

5th 

151       .  , 

3d 

50  children  sent  to  school 

for' backward  children 

2d 

22 

1st 

2 

Total 

4,022  children 

Enrolled  in  1900 — 4,607  children 

Discharged  1908  from  8th  grade  - 

—2,396  children 

7th 

1,161 

6th 

545 

5th 

159 

2d 

1    child    on    account    of 

physical  defect 

2d 

65  children  sent  to  school 

for  backward  children 

1st 

15 

Total 

4,342  children 

From  the  above  tables  we  see  that  about  300 
children  are  lost  throughout  the  eight-year  period 
by  death  or  removal  to  some  other  school  district. 
If  we  subtract  this  number  from  the  number 
enrolled  in  the  first  grade,  the  results  show  that 
in  the  city  of  Chemnitz : 

More  than  94%  complete  thesixth  grade 
"         "76%  "    seventh  grade 

11    50%  "        "    eighth  grade1 

1  Written  communication  from  the  Burgermeister. 


1 8      Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 


The  following  table  shows  the  number  in  the 
grades  in  Chemnitz  in  1913.1 


On  Easter,  19 13,  there  were: 

Discharged 

Enrolled 

Grade 

VIII 

VII 

VI 

V 

Total 

First  Grade 

Boys 

i,497 
1,806 

623 
660 

281 
249 

66 
68 

2,467 

2,783 

3,IJ3 

Girls 

3,:56 

Total 

3,303 

1,283 

530 

134 

5,250 

6,269 

Note  the  great  improvement  since  1908.  Now 
about  57  per  cent,  of  the  boys  and  65  per  cent,  of 
the  girls  actually  complete  the  eight  grades. 

According  to  the  figures  for  1907,  62  per  cent, 
of  all  children  of  Munich  that  entered  the  public 
schools  in  the  first  grade  completed  at  least  seven 
grades  before  leaving  the  school. 

The  table  below  shows  the  enrollment  in  Munich 
for  the  year  1913.  Here  again  we  note  an  im- 
provement over  the  year  1907. 


Total  Number  of  Pupils  in  Grades 

IN  I9I3 

Grade 

Boys 

Girls 

Total 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

5,305 

5,027 

5,321 

I             5,3H 

5,3H 
5,099 
5,H3 
5,308 

10,649 
10,126 

IO,434 
10,622 

Written  communication  from  the  Burgermeister. 


Character,  Quantity,  and  Quality    19 


Total  Number  of  Pupils  in  Grades  in  1913 


Grade 

Boys 

Girls 

Total 

V 

4,559 

4,890 

9,449 

VI 

3,767 

4,353 

8,120 

VII 

3,223 

3,319 

6,542 

VIII 

2,486 

14881 

3,974 

School  fori 

backward  > 

333 

226 

559 

children     J 

Total 

35,365 

35,no 

70,475 

Number  of  Pupils  Leaving  Each  Grade  in   1913 


Grade 

Boys 

Girls 

Total 

I 

II 

III 









I 

I 

IV 

10 

4 

14 

V 

39 

4 

43 

VI 

176 

24 

200 

VII 

564 

92 

656 

VIII 

2,486 

1,388 

3,874 

School  for  1 

backward  V 

42 

2 

44 

children     J 

Total 

3,317 

1,515 

4,830 

The  figures  for  the  capital  of  the  Empire,  ac- 
cording to  the  official  report  for  1908,  showed 
that  the  following  percentage  of  those  who  en- 

1  Girls  are  obliged  to  attend  for  seven  years  only.  A  new  law 
has  just  gone  into  effect  which  will  require  attendance  for  eight 
years. 


20      Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 


tered  the  first  grade  had  completed  the  grades 
below  specified  before  leaving  school : 


Grade 

1908 

1907 

1905 

VIII 

VII 

VI 

43-32% 

28.99 

16.09 

41.02% 

29.88 

17.67 

37-o6% 

30.36 

19.68 

According  to  this  analysis  88.04  Per  cent,  of 
the  pupils  fourteen  years  of  age  had  completed 
six  grades  of  schooling,  72.31  per  cent,  seven 
grades  of  schooling,  and  43.32  per  cent,  eight  grades 
of  schooling. 

The  table  below  shows  the  grades  and  promo- 
tions in  1913:1 

Pupils  Discharged  after  having  Completed  Eight  Years 
of  Obligatory  School  Attendance 


From  Grade 

1912 

1911 

1909 

1907 

1905 

VIII 

12,504 

12,366 

n,i55 

10,020 

9,028 

VII 

6,653 

6,910 

6,966 

7,30i 

7,395 

VI 

3,408 

3,662 

3,758 

4,317 

4,794 

V 

1,358 

i,356 

i,397 

1,862 

2,093 

IV 

287 

365 

332 

569 

754 

III-I 

47 

56 

57 

84 

119 

Classes  for ) 

backward  >• 

454 

408 

323 

277 

178 

pupils        ) 

Total 

24,711 

25,123 

23,988 

24,430 

24,361 

1  This  table  was  supplied  by  the  city  Council  of  Berlin. 


Character,  Quantity,  and  Quality    21 

The  Same  Reduced  to  Per  Cent. 


Grade 

1912 

1911 

1909 

1907 

1905 

VIII 

50.60 

49.22 

46.50 

41.02 

37.o6 

VII 

26.92 

27.51 

29.04 

29.88 

30.36 

VI 

13-79 

14.58 

15.67 

17.67 

19.68 

V 

549 

549 

5-82 

7.62 

8-59 

IV 

1. 16 

1-45 

1.38 

2-33 

309 

III-I 

0.20 

0.22 

0.24 

°-34 

0.49 

Classes  for  backward 

pupils 

1.84 

1.62 

i-35 

1. 14 

0.73 

The  Following  Figures  Give  the  Percentage  of  the  Pupils 
that  were  promoted  from  one  grade  to  the  next 


Grade 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

I 

86.9 

89.82 

89.93 

90.22 

91.00 

90.35 

90.89 

II 

87.4 

88.95 

89.32 

89.70 

89.59 

89.03 

89.39 

III 

86.3 

87.82 

88.32 

89.21 

88.80 

88.46 

88.67 

IV 

84.2 

8779 

87.56 

88.01 

88.77 

88.32 

88.26 

V 

85.9 

88.39 

88.23 

89.64 

89.00 

88.83 

89.11 

VI 

85.1 

86.76 

87.17 

88.15 

88.70 

87.96 

87.76 

VII 

78.6 

8345 

83.57 

85.03 

85.37 

84.29 

85.15 

Average 

854 

87.88 

88.27 

88.78 

88.94 

88.38 

88.64 

Thus  we  note  that  in  1905  37.06  per  cent.,  in 
1908  43.32  per  cent.,  and  in  1913  50.6  per  cent, 
completed  eight  grades.  The  improvement  in  all 
other  grades  is  similar,  as  is  borne  out  by  the 
latter  part  of  the  table. 

The  American  city  records  are  appalling  com- 
pared with  the  Chemnitz  record !     No  doubt  later 


22      Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

records  for  Prussia  would  show  themselves  to  still 
better  advantage,  but  as  it  is,  our  investigation 
makes  us  safe  in  stating  that  Germany  graduates 
fifteen  to  twenty  per  cent,  more  of  her  pupils  from 
the  eighth  grade,  and  twenty-five  to  thirty  per 
cent,  more  from  the  sixth  grade  than  graduate 
from  the  same  grades  in  the  United  States. 

From  these  records,  it  is  at  once  obvious  how 
decidedly  the  attendance  records  show  Germany 
to  an  advantage ;  and  at  the  same  time  what  a  great 
task  the  school  authorities  in  the  United  States 
have  to  perform  before  their  children  will  be  able 
to  take  up  industrial  and  commercial  studies  with 
the  same  preparation  as  the  children  in  Germany 
are  now  in  a  position  to  do.1  The  children  in 
cities  of  8000  or  more  inhabitants  are  on  an  average 
about  two  months  behind  the  German  attendance, 
while  the  period  of  attending  school  amounts  in 
the  case  of  the  remaining  two-thirds  of  the  Ameri- 
can children  to  less  than  half  that  utilized  in 
Germany. 2 

To  this  must  be  added  the  fact  that  no  one  who 
understands  the  American  school  system  and 
knows  what  a  powerful  pressure  is  put  upon  the 
teachers  by   the   superintendent,  principals,  and 

1  Germany  learned  in  the  early  seventies  that  continuation 
schools  could  never  be  fully  successful  without  a  thoroughly 
executed  compulsory  public-school  system;  and  after  several 
decades  of  strenuous  labor,  she  brought  every  child  into  the 
schoolroom. 

2  Verwaltungsbericht  des  koniglichen  preussischen  Landesgewer- 
beamts,  1905,  p.  1. 


Character,  Quantity,  and  Quality    23 

patrons  to  pass  pupils  from  one  grade  to  the  next, 
whether  they  are  prepared  for  such  advancement 
or  not,  would  doubt  for  one  moment  after  visiting 
German  schools  for  a  while  that  those  passed  in 
the  German  schools  from  one  grade  to  the  next 
know  their  subject  far  better  on  the  average  than 
those  of  the  corresponding  grades  in  the  United 
States. * 

The  grade  comparison  which  we  have  just  made 
proves  beyond  dispute  that  as  far  as  the  amount 
of  knowledge  comes  into  consideration  as  a  re- 
quisite for  the  pursuit  of  industrial  and  commer- 
cial training,  the  advantage  lies  decidedly  with 
Germany. 2 

(b)  Illiteracy  of  the  Two  Nations  Compared. 3     If 

1  Superintendents  and  principals  must  please  the  patrons,  and 
teachers  must  please  the  patrons,  the  superintendents,  and  the 
principals.  Many  patrons  feel  that  their  children  are  acquiring 
knowledge  as  long  as  they  pass  from  one  grade  to  the  next. 
Superintendents,  principals,  and  teachers  must  make  a  show  of 
progress,  though  the  interests  of  the  school  suffer  thereby.  Hence 
pupils  are  passed!  As  is  well  known,  the  positions  of  city  super- 
intendents and  principals  are  frequently  secured  because  the 
applicants  are  greater  politicians  than  school  men. 

2  A  generation  ago  Karl  Schroder  wrote  that  one  of  the  main 
reasons  why  the  German  children  were  so  little  able  to  make  the 
most  out  of  industrial  instruction  was  the  fact  that  their  grammar 
school  education  was  so  deficient. — Schroder,  Hervorragende 
Forderungsstatten  des  deutschen  Handwerks,  p.  118. 

3  "The  Federal  Census  for  the  year  19 10  shows  that  at  the  time 
the  census  was  taken  there  were  in  the  United  States  5,516,163 
persons  ten  years  of  age  and  over  unable  to  read  and  write. 
This  was  7.7  per  cent,  of  the  total  population  ten  years  of  age 
and  over  .  .  .  ."  "Of  these  illiterates,  3,184,633,  or  58  per  cent., 
were  white  persons,   1,534,272,   or  28  per  cent.,  were  native- 


24      Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

we  compare  the  two  countries  with  respect  to 
illiteracy,  we  find  that  in  1900  the  United  States 
had  63  whites  and  445  negroes  per  1000  who  were 

born  whites,  and  1,650,361,  or  30  per  cent.,  foreign-born  whites; 
2,227,731,  or  40  per  cent.,  were  negroes.  The  remaining  2  per 
cent,  were  Indians,  Chinese,  Japanese,  and  others.  Of  the  total 
number  of  illiterates,  1,768,132  lived  in  urban  communities  and 
3,748,031  in  rural  communities,  in  small  towns,  villages,  and 
open  country.  Of  the  urban  population,  5.1  per  cent,  were  illit- 
erate; of  the  rural  population  10.1  per  cent." — U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Education  Bulletin,  1913,  No.  20,  p.  7.  "The  census  reports 
show  that  in  19 10  there  were  2,273,603  illiterate  males  of  voting 
age — that  is,  twenty -one  years  of  age  and  over,  of  whom  617,733 
were  native-born  whites,  788,631  foreign-born  whites,  and  819,135 
negroes.  The  per  cent,  of  illiteracy  of  the  total  male  population 
of  voting  age  was  8.4;  of  the  native-born  white  men,  4.1;  of  the 
foreign-born  white  men,  11.9;  of  the  negroes,  33.7.  The  total 
number  of  illiterate  men  of  voting  age  in  the  entire  country  was 
greater  than  the  total  number  of  men  of  voting  age  in  the  States 
of  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Delaware,  and 
the  District  of  Columbia.  In  some  States,  and  in  many  counties, 
the  illiterate  voters  hold  the  balance  of  power  in  any  closely 
contested  election. 

"The  problem  of  adult  illiteracy  is  no  longer  one  of  race  or  of 
section.  In  1910  the  total  number  of  white  illiterates  was  greater 
by  956,902  than  the  total  number  of  negro  illiterates,  and  the 
number  of  illiterate  white  men  of  voting  age  was  greater  by 
585,229  than  that  of  illiterate  negroes  of  voting  age.  Massachu- 
setts had  7469  more  illiterate  men  of  voting  age  than  Arkansas; 
Michigan,  2663  more  than  West  Virginia;  Maryland,  2352  more 
than  Florida;  Ohio,  more  than  twice  as  many  as  New  Mexico 
and  Arizona  combined ;  Pennsylvania,  5689  more  than  Tennessee 
and  Kentucky  combined.  Boston  had  24,468  illiterates  over 
ten  years  of  age;  Baltimore,  20,325;  Pittsburgh,  26,627;  New 
Orleans,  18,987;  Fall  River,  12,276;  Birmingham,  11,026; 
Providence,  14,236;  Nashville,  7947;  Washington  City,  13,812; 
Memphis,  8855." —  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin,  1913, 
No.  20,  p.  9. 


Character,  Quantity,  and  Quality    25 

illiterate. *  Germany  in  1903  had  only  4  per  1000. 2 
To  be  sure  the  United  States  has  a  larger  propor- 
tion of  foreigners  who  are  illiterate  than  has 
Germany.  It  must  also  be  recognized  that  the 
mere  ability  to  read  and  write  is  far  from  being 
the  sole  qualification  for  taking  up  industrial  and 
commercial  studies. 

(c)  Comparison  of  the  Teaching  Staff  of  the  Two 
Countries.  Teaching  in  the  public  schools  cannot 
be  said  to  be  a  regular  profession  as  is  law,  medi- 
cine, etc.  It  is  adopted  largely  as  a  temporary 
occupation  by  young  men  who  are  preparing  for 
some  other  profession  or  for  higher  literary  insti- 
tutions, and  by  young  women  until  they  marry. 


1  The  State  ranking  fourth  in  respect  to  illiteracy  is  Kentucky. 
"Thoughtful  people  were  amazed  when  they  realized  that  within 
the  borders  of  Kentucky  there  were  65,000  illiterate  white  voters; 
that  4500  log  school  houses,  not  fit  for  cattle,  were  in  use;  that 
there  was  more  illiteracy  in  the  ten  counties  constituting  the 
famous  Bluegrass  section  than  in  all  of  Massachusetts  and  that 
hundreds  of  men  were  connected  with  the  public  schools  who 
could  neither  read  nor  write!!"  Kentucky  has  a  national  repu- 
tation for  lawlessness,  mobmania,  and  night-riding,  but  in  con- 
trast to  all  these  the  State  Superintendent  thinks  that  ignorance 
is  the  sorest  spot  in  Kentucky.  "At  the  risk  of  being  dogmatic  I 
suggest  that  there  is  one  great  lack.  To  my  mind  it  is  not  law- 
lessness, nor  mobmania,  not  night-riding,  primarily,  but  it  is 
ignorance.  Ignorance  is  the  sore  spot  in  Kentucky,  and  I  use 
the  word  ignorance  in  its  broadest  sense.  We  must  educate!!" 
— Louisville  Courier  Journal,  Jan.  27,  1909. 

2  Among  the  Prussian  recruits  of  1908,  the  number  who  could 
neither  read  nor  write  was  0.02  per  cent.  Among  9975  soldiers 
which  Prussia  furnished  for  marine  service  during  that  year  not 
one  was  illiterate. 


26     Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

The  average  period  of  service  covers  a  little  more 
than  four  years. 

In  the  cities  the  teachers  are  usually  quite  well 
prepared  for  their  work,  high  school  teachers  be- 
ing largely  college  graduates;  and  in  the  grades, 
graduates  of  high  schools  or  normal  schools.  In 
the  country,  teachers  begin  their  career  in  their 
eighteenth  or  nineteenth  year,  and  a  large  majority 
have  had  practically  no  training  other  than  the 
country  school  course.  Those  that  continue  in 
the  work  usually  supplement  their  training  by  a 
year  or  more  spent  at  some  normal  school. 

In  the  Southern  States  the  country  school 
teachers  take  up  their  career  with  a  preparation 
inferior  even  to  that  obtaining  in  the  Northern 
States.  In  a  report  concerning  school  conditions 
in  the  Southern  States,  President  Claxton  says: 

Even  now  the  most  of  the  teachers  do  not  have  an 
adequate  literary  and  professional  training.  Less 
than  25  per  cent,  of  the  country  school  teachers  have 
had  a  high  school  training.  More  than  half  of  them 
have  completed  an  elementary  school  only.  Less 
than  ten  per  cent,  of  all  these  teachers  have  had  any 
kind  of  pedagogical  instruction. ' 

It  is  apparent  that  the  American  public  school, 
especially  if  the  average  institution  be  considered, 
is  handicapped  in  not  having  teachers  trained 
according  to  Germany's  standard.     The  American 

1  Claxton,  Southern  Educational  Association,  Atlanta,  Ga., 
Dec.  29,  1908. 


Character,  Quantity,  and  Quality    27 

schools  are  the  gainers,  however,  in  the  youth  of 
its  teaching  force.  Youth  is  hopeful,  enthusiastic, 
ambitious,  plans  great  projects;  and  these  elements 
implanted  in  the  American  boys  and  girls  by  a 
young  and  highly  active  teaching  force,  make 
themselves  felt  in  the  industries  of  the  country. 

(d)  Goal  of  the  Schools.  The  goal  in  the  Ameri- 
can schoolroom  prompts  every  boy  and  girl  to 
strive  to  rise  into  a  higher  position  than  the  one 
into  which  he  was  born.  This  results  in  a  disin- 
clination for  manual  labor. * 

1  "No  boy  in  an  American  school  looks  forward  to  digging  and 
delving  for  hire  as  a  means  of  livelihood,  nor  does  any  girl  con- 
template domestic  service  as  her  future  work  in  life." — Rev. 
Finlay,  Mosely  Educational  Commission  Reports,  p.  102. 

The  American  farmer,  when  visiting  the  district  school  is 
always  called  upon  to  make  a  speech.  He  usually  calls  the  at- 
tention of  the  children  to  the  fact  that  we  have  a  great  and  glori- 
ous country,  where  everybody  can  be  great  and  powerful,  if  he 
only  will,  and  he  rarely  ends  his  speech  without  saying  that  the 
poorest  boy  may  some  day  be  the  nation's  president.  It  is  inter- 
esting to  contrast  such  an  ideal  with  an  experience  that  the 
writer  noted  in  a  German  school.  A  great  university  was  to 
have  a  centennial  celebration  in  another  decade.  The  teacher 
expressed  the  hope  that  upon  this  occasion  the  pupils  might  be 
in  the  city  to  stand  on  the  street  corners  and  see  the  people  pass 
by.  With  us  the  teacher  would  have  said  that  he  hoped  that 
many  of  them  would  be  members  of  the  university  by  that  time 
and  be  in  the  procession  itself  rather  than  have  the  mere  oppor- 
tunity of  seeing  the  greatness  of  someone  else! 

"From  the  bottom  to  the  top  of  the  school  system  the  eye 
is  on  the  school  above,  and  the  school  above  leads  to  a  profes- 
sional or  a  managing  employment  rather  than  to  a  trade  vocation." 
— Draper,  Our  Children,  Our  Schools,  and  Our  Industries,  p.  9. 

"American  children  are  taught  that  they  must  hold  them- 
selves above  unskilled  labor.     It  is,   however,   no   uncommon 


28     Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

The  goal  in  the  German  school  is  a  very  practical 
one.1  The  pupils  are  prepared  with  a  view  to 
their  life  work.  We  have  already  noted  in  the 
curriculum  that  "Handarbeit"  plays  an  important 
role  in  the  curriculum  for  girls,  also  that  cooking 
is  receiving  special  attention  in  the  cities.  Such 
attention  as  is  devoted  in  the  United  States  to 
this  accomplishment  is  given  in  the  belief  that  it 
constitutes  an  intellectual  stimulus  rather  than 
because  of  the  conviction  that  all  the  world  must 
work. 

The  object  of  this  chapter  has  been  to  determine 
how  well  German  and  American  children  who  leave 
the  public  schools  are  prepared  to  take  up  indus- 
trial and  commercial  instruction. 

Up  to  the  present  our  investigation  shows  the 
advantage  decidedly  in  favor  of  Germany  with 
reference  to  the  time  spent  in  school,  the  grade 


thing  to  find  young  men  and  women  in  industrial  and  domestic 
service  in  this  country  who  were  better  trained  in  elementary 
knowledge  of  reading,  writing,  and  mathematics,  as  well  as  the 
simple  arts  which  make  for  ordinary  efficiency  before  they  came 
to  this  country,  than  the  young  people  of  similar  age  and  social 
plane  are  who  have  always  lived  here.  They  are  happier  and  of 
more  value  to  the  country  for  it." — Draper,  Our  Children,  Our 
Schools,  and  Our  Industries,  p.  8. 

1  "The  German  purpose  seems  to  be  to  train  the  boys  and  girls 
so  as  to  add  to  the  physical  and  therefore  to  the  military  strength 
of  the  Empire.  The  American  purpose  is  to  train  boys  and  girls 
so  as  to  enable  them  to  make  the  most  of  themselves.  Our  ideal 
seems  to  be  the  noblest,  but  as  yet  the  Germans  are  more  widely 
and  more  uniformly  realizing  their  ideal  than  we  are  ours." 
— Draper,  Our  Children,  Our  Schools,  and  Our  Industries,  p.  23. 


Character,  Quantity,  and  Quality    29 

at  which  pupils  leave  the  school,  the  thoroughness 
with  which  the  subject  matter  is  mastered,  the 
goal  of  the  school  itself,  and  its  organization  and 
teaching  staff.  But  all  these  advantages  are 
counterbalanced,  to  a  certain  extent,  by  the  high 
initiative  instilled  in  American  pupils.  The  Ameri- 
can spirit  is  more  optimistic  than  is  the  German, 
more  ambitious  to  attempt  new  things,  full  of 
high  ideals  and  aspirations;  that  spirit  is  the 
heritage  of  every  American  child.  ■  In  the  Ameri- 
can school,  more  difficult  tasks  than  the  children 
are  able  to  accomplish,  are  frequently  assigned 
for  the  purpose  of  stimulating  a  desire  to  over- 
come obstacles. 

The  tendency  toward  independence  is  also 
shown  in  the  United  States  in  the  greater  consid- 
eration given  to  the  personality  of  the  individual 

1  A  point  which  strikes  the  British  visitor  to  the  United  States 
in  connection  with  education  is  the  constant  preoccupation  of 
the  American  educationalist  as  to  certain  objects  which  are  not 
usually  considered  in  England  to  be  essential  to  education. 
Thus,  every  American  teacher,  primary  as  well  as  secondary, 
endeavors  to  infuse  a  current  of  good  humor,  of  joy  of  life,  into 
his  or  her  pupils, — a  joy  of  life  which  never  forsakes  them.  This 
accounts  for  the  bright  smiling  faces  one  encounters  everywhere 
amongst  American  children  and  native-born  Americans.  The 
American  teacher  never  loses  sight  of  the  greatest  object  of  all 
child-training — preparation  for  adult  life,  the  development  to  its 
fullest  possible  extent  of  the  child's  moral  and  physical  capacities. 
"The  acquisition  of  knowledge  is  becoming  of  less  and  less  im- 
portance as  compared  with  the  development  of  character,  health, 
and  adaptability  and  with  the  making  of  the  handy  man  and 
handy  woman  who  can  turn  themselves  to  anything." — Barclay, 
Mosely  Educational  Commission  Reports,  p.  399. 


30     Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

pupil,  and  recognition  of  an  equality  between 
teacher  and  pupil.  A  military  atmosphere  reigns 
in  the  German  school.  The  pupil  is  expected  to 
obey,  and  for  that  reason  the  spirit  of  independ- 
ence finds  less  favorable  soil  than  is  offered  in 
American  schools. 

The  American  children  are  encouraged  to  use 
the  library,  and  indeed  a  great  many  books  out- 
side of  those  prescribed  in  the  curriculum  are 
read.  In  both  of  these  respects  the  German 
system  differs  widely  from  our  own.  There  the 
lessons  are  always  so  assigned  that  the  pupil  can 
and  must  master  them.  Text-books  are  few  in 
number  and  few  books  outside  of  these  are  read. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  German  method  well 
prepares  the  pupil  for  the  performing  of  future 
tasks;  but  it  does  not  call  forth  originality  and 
self-reliance  as  does  the  American  method.  * 

More  value  is  attached  to  good  habits  and 
morals  in  American  schools  than  is  the  case  in 
German  schools.  The  anti-alcohol  and  anti- 
tobacco  movements  are  indebted  in  no  small 
degree  to  the  great  strength  and  power  which 
has  been  fostered  in  the  American  school. 2     What 

1  It  is  often  remarked  in  the  United  States  that  the  German 
skilled  workman  does  well  and  thoroughly  what  he  has  been 
taught  to  do,  but  seems  to  be  rather  slow  in  originating  new 
designs  for  new  circumstances. 

2  The  author  attended  a  reading  recitation  in  a  German  school. 
The  story  closed  with  the  statement  that  a  certain  boy  had  re- 
ceived as  a  reward  for  his  faithfulness  a  pipe  with  a  golden  lid 
and  stem,  which  enabled  him  to  displace  an  old  pipe  that  he  had 


Character,  Quantity,  and  Quality    31 

Germany  accomplishes  in  this  field  is  insignificant 
compared  with  achievements  in  America.  How 
far  the  endeavors  to  influence  the  initiative  and 
moral  direction  of  the  American  child  will  enable 
him  to  keep  pace  with  the  more  advanced  and 
more  thoroughly  trained  German  pupil,  does  not 
admit  of  statistical  proof,  but  must  be  left  to 
personal  judgment. 

formerly  used.  The  selection  of  such  a  story  would  be  well 
nigh  impossible  in  the  United  States  on  account  of  the  practically 
unanimous  feeling  that  such  an  ideal  would  be  detrimental  to 
the  boy's  best  interests. 


II 


AN  HISTORICAL  SKETCH  OF  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  THE 

INDUSTRIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  CONTINUATION 

SCHOOLS  BEFORE  THE  "'SEVENTIES" 

i.  Continuation  Schools  a  Sign  of  Advancing 
Culture.  The  continuation  school  idea  sprang 
into  existence  from  a  feeling  on  the  part  of  the 
Church  that  the  home  influence  was  not  sufficient 
to  enable  the  child  to  meet  life's  duties  successfully. 
The  interest  of  the  Church  in  morals  and  salvation 
found  expression  in  an  ever-extending  control 
over  the  rearing  of  the  child.  In  consequence  of 
the  meager  schooling  for  the  youth,  the  Church 
of  the  sixteenth  century  conceived  the  idea  of 
prolonging  the  period  of  religious  instruction.  In 
Germany,  in  the  year  1589,  the  Bishop  of  Sam- 
land  came  forward  with  a  plan.1  The  centuries 
following  witnessed  a  mass  of  Church  edicts 
calling  for  the  establishing  of  continuation  schools 
of  a  religious  type.  Wurtt ember g  led  the  way, 
followed  by  Baden  and  Bavaria. 

In  consequence  of  the  irregularity  of  attendance, 
the  inefficiency  of  the  teachers,  etc.,  the  results 
attained  were  not  decidedly  marked.  Pache  com- 
ments on  these  results  in  the  following  terms :  "  The 

1  Pache,  Fortbildungsschule,  book  i.,  p.  21. 
32 


Historical  Sketch  33 

shortcomings  were  recognized  all  the  more  keenly 
as  the  value  of  a  higher  degree  of  intelligence 
came  to  be  appreciated."1 

2.  The  Transition  of  the  Old-Time  Sunday 
School  to  One  of  a  More  Literary  and  Industrial 
Type.  History  offers  numerous  examples  of  new 
movements  that  attached  themselves  to  already 
existing  organizations.  Sometimes  the  form  and 
method  of  procedure  of  an  organization,  that  up 
to  the  present  time  has  been  only  partially  success- 
ful in  its  original  purpose,  are  seized  upon;  again, 
the  machinery  of  a  movement  that  was  once  power- 
ful but  now  on  the  decline  is  adopted. 

An  illustration  of  this  type  of  development  is 
presented  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  and  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  centuries  by  the  Sun- 
day school,  the  character  of  which  was  transformed 
from  one  of  religious  instruction  purely  to  one 
placing  more  and  more  emphasis  upon  cultural 
and  industrial  subjects.2     Naturally  enough,  the 

1  Pache,  Fortbildungsschule,  book  i.,  p.  21. 

2  The  decline  of  work  in  the  skilled  trades  was  assignable 
in  no  small  degree  to  the  inadequate  mental  development  of  the 
workers.  The  constantly  growing  trade,  and  the  early  begin- 
nings of  the  factory  system  demanded  a  better  trained  people. 
Even  in  the  country  districts,  the  Sunday  school  was  used  to 
supplement  the  instruction  that  had  been  cut  short  during  the 
harvest  months.  In  the  flourishing  agricultural  State  of  Wiirt- 
temberg  attendance  upon  the  Sunday  school  was  required  by 
law  as  early  as  1695.  In  tne  eighteenth  century  the  several 
German  States  of  Baden,  Bavaria,  and  Prussia  organized  Sunday 
schools  in  which  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic  were  taught. 


34     Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

Church  pursued  its  activities  in  this  industrial 
realm  on  the  theory  that  such  a  course  would  in 
the  end  accrue  to  the  advantage  of  the  Church. 

(a)  Social  Revolution.  The  great  economic  and 
social  revolutions  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries  created  a  transformation  of  society.  In 
these  centuries  the  guilds  gradually  lost  their 
importance,  and  by  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  the  movement  for  more  or  less  freedom 
in  trade  and  for  the  entering  of  occupations  had 
asserted  itself.  The  household  economy,  known 
as  "Hausindustrie,"  was  supplanted  by  the 
small  factory,  the  means  of  transportation  were 
greatly  improved  and  the  expense  reduced;  hence 
trade  gained  a  decided  impetus.  Furthermore, 
the  doctrine  of  free  trade  (the  chief  exponent  of 
which  was  Adam  Smith)  found  an  ever-increasing 
number  of  followers  and  the  rivalry  of  foreign 
markets  made  itself  felt.  Thus  the  old-time 
handicraft  proved  less  and  less  capable  of  compet- 
ing in  the  markets.     This  was  particularly  notice- 

The  compulsory  period  of  attendance  extended  usually  until 
the  eighteenth  year.  In  Hohenzollern  it  reached  the  twentieth 
year.  The  attendance  requirements  were  strictly  observed. 
In  Bavaria  no  one  could  be  a  party  to  a  business  agreement, 
contract  a  marriage,  or  become  a  journeyman,  who  could  not 
show  that  he  had  attended  the  continuation  school  regularly. — 
Pache,  book  i.,  p.  21.  L 

Frederick  William  decreed  in  1716  that  all  adults  must  attend 
a  winter  school.  In  1763,  Frederick  the  Great  ordered  that 
Sunday  schools  and  review  schools  be  established  and  that  all 
unmarried  people  should  receive  instruction  in  reading  and 
writing. — Siercks,  Das  deutsche  Fortbildungsschulwesen,  p.  18. 


Historical  Sketch  35 

able  in  the  industrial  districts  of  the  South  German 
States,  also  in  Hamburg  and  other  coast  cities. 

(b)  The  Influence  of  Famine.  Many  of  the 
economic  and  educational  revolutions  trace  their 
origin  to  a  famine.  Even  to  the  present  day,  the 
traveler  in  the  Erzgebirge  of  Saxony  will  be  told 
repeatedly  by  the  working  classes  that  several 
centuries  ago  there  was  a  famine  amongst  them, 
caused  by  the  extinction  of  the  silver  mines.  In 
1561,  a  noted  benefactress,  Barbara  Uttman, 
taught  the  women  the  art  of  lace-making,  and 
thereby  restored  prosperity  to  the  land.  A  beau- 
tiful monument  has  been  erected  to  her  memory. 

After  some  years  of  famine,  Wurttemberg  made 
vigorous  efforts  to  introduce  industrial  instruc- 
tion into  the  Sunday  schools.  This  reform  was 
accomplished  in  18 16.  Hamburg  underwent  a 
similar  experience. 

This  whole  point  of  view  will  be  seen  more 
clearly  when  we  come  to  consider  the  industrial 
school  legislation  of  the  several  cities  and  states. 

(c)  The  Antiquated  Apprenticeship  System  Su- 
perseded by  a  New  Form  of  Technical  Training.  In 
this  transformation  the  old-fashioned  apprentice- 
ship system  sustained  great  injury.  Owing  to  the 
great  competition,  the  master  workman  was  so 
completely  engaged  that  he  had  no  time  to  teach 
the  apprentice  thoroughly;  and  again,  owing  to  a 
constantly  increasing  division  of  labor,  the  impart- 
ing of  comprehensive  instruction  in  any  one  trade 
was  rendered  more  difficult. 


36  .    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

In  this  manner  the  old  system  of  apprenticeship 
fell  into  discredit.  The  demands  of  the  rapidly 
expanding  industrial  life  gradually  necessitated 
special  technical  instruction,  the  extension  and 
development  of  which  depended  upon  the  degree 
of  culture  of  the  several  communities,  the  techni- 
cal and  economical  possibilities,  the  varieties  of 
industrial  occupation,  and  above  all  upon  the 
money  obtainable  for  such  purposes. 

(d)  Political  Reorganizations,  as  well  as  New 
Inventions,  the  Incentives  of  Innovation  in  Continu- 
ation School  Development.  The  constantly  chang- 
ing political  relations  of  the  German  States  in 
respect  to  each  other  and  to  the  outside  world 
likewise  influenced  industrial  education.1  New 
inventions  in  special  branches  of  industry  neces- 
sitate entirely  new  courses  and  changed  methods 
of  instruction. 

The  degree  of  rapidity  with  which  these  revolu- 
tions took  place  varied  in  the  several  States.  The 
final  forms  of  the  courses  of  study,  that  ever 
adapted  themselves  to  the  changed  conditions, 
were  necessarily  unlike.     The  variations  seem  to 

1  Some  of  the  historical  events  that  influenced  industrial  edu- 
cation were  the  Napoleonic  Wars,  which  killed  some  industries 
and  brought  others  into  existence.  On  this  depended  naturally 
the  origin  or  ruin  resp-ctively  of  the  corresponding  trade  schools. 
The  inauguration  of  the  tariff  made  itself  indirectly  felt  in  the 
domain  of  educational  matters.  Through  its  favorable  or  un- 
favorable influence  whole  branches  of  industry  were  built  up  or 
destroyed.  When  Berlin  was  made  the  capital  of  the  German 
Empire,  the  industrial  schools  progressed  correspondingly  to 
the  importance  of  the  city. 


Historical  Sketch  37 

some  extent  to  be  traceable  to  the  different  reli- 
gious confessions.1 

3.  Brief  Survey  of  the  Development  of  the 
Continuation  Schools  in  the  Leading  German 
States. 

A.       WIJRTTEMBERG 

(a)  Origin  and  Growth  of  the  Movement  before  the 
Dispensation  of  1836.  Wtirttemberg,  which  took 
the  lead  in  founding  continuation  schools  of  a 
religious  and  cultural  character,  was  also  the  State 
that  blazed  the  way  when  the  time  came  to  change 
these  schools  into  an  industrial  form  in  order  to 
meet  the  improved  economic,  social,  and  cultural 
conditions. 

On  the  one  hand,  the  famine,  which  has  already 

1 1  found  some  very  prominent  school  men  who  claim  that  the 
particular  religious  confession  of  the  several  States  and  commu- 
nities had  an  enormous  influence  in  the  advance  of  industry  and 
industrial  schools.  With  reference  to  this  point  I  read  in  one  of 
the  large  dailies  the  following  statement,  "As  we  have  observed 
in  our  former  studies,  it  is  always  the  Protestant  sections  in 
which  great  industries  arise.  Catholic  Aachen  is  no  exception, 
since  even  there  the  manufacturers  themselves  are  Protestants. 
Another  of  the  numerous  examples  is  Plauen.  The  Reformation 
above  all  else,  laid  the  foundation  of  the  commercial  importance 
of  this  city.  Much  of  the  industrial  prosperity  of  the  present- 
day  Germany  must  be  credited  to  the  pioneers  of  the  Reforma- 
tion that  operated  here.  These  Swiss  and  Swabians,  exiled 
on  account  of  their  religious  beliefs,  settled  in  Plauen  as  the 
first  cotton  weavers,  and  thereby  laid  the  corner-stone  of  the 
present' day  industrial  prosperity  of  the  district."  —  Heinrich 
Lee,  Berliner  Tageblatt,  July  26,  1908. 


38     Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

been  referred  to,  and  on  the  other,  the  feeling  that 
the  old-fashioned  method  of  education  did  not 
meet  the  advanced  technical  demands,  and  that 
German  art  and  handicraft  were  inferior  to  that 
of  England,  seem  to  have  been  the  occasion  of 
starting-points  of  industrial  schools  in  Wurttem- 
berg  in  1818.  In  1826,  Sunday  trade  schools 
already  existed  in  eighteen  cities.  In  1828,  there 
were  thirty-seven  such  schools  in  Wurttemberg. 
The  best  one  was  in  Ulm.  It  had  six  teachers 
and  328  pupils. 

(b)  The  Law  of  1836.  In  1836,  the  whole  move- 
ment was  regulated  by  law.  Pupils  whose  attend- 
ance at  public  schools  was  no  longer  required 
were  obliged  to  attend  Sunday  school  until  their 
eighteenth  year,  in  so  far  as  they  were  not  in 
attendance  upon  a  higher  type  of  literary  school 
or  a  special  industrial  continuation  school.  We 
note  in  this  law  a  kind  of  indirect  compulsion  of 
attendance  upon  a  trade  school. 

In  1846,  we  find  4500  pupils  in  the  sixty-nine 
trade  schools  of  the  various  cities  and  villages.  Of 
this  number  forty-six  schools  had  instruction 
only  two  hours  a  week,  and  thirty-eight  had  only 
one  teacher  each.  That  the  movement  still  de- 
pended upon  charity  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that 
fifty-five  of  the  sixty-nine  schools  paid  no  salaries 
to  their  teachers. 

(c)  The  Royal  Commission  of  1833*  In  1853  a 
Royal  Commission  of  industrial  continuation 
schools    was    instituted.     The    Commission    was 


Historical  Sketch  39 

put  under  the  Ministry  of  Churches  and 
Schools. 

The  chief  regulations  made  by  this  Commission 
were  these: 

1st.  In  general,  the  Sunday  trade  schools  shall 
not  only  be  maintained  in  their  former  functions, 
but  shall  be  improved  in  conformity  to  the  indus- 
trial requirements  of  the  locality  and  in  accordance 
with  the  possibilities  of  obtaining  money  and 
teachers.  The  course  of  study  shall  be  extended 
to  include  hours  of  instruction  in  the  morning  and 
evening  of  week  days. 

2d.  In  the  chief  industrial  cities  the  industrial 
continuation  school  instruction  shall,  as  far  as 
possible,  have  the  following  organization : 

(a)  For  those  apprentices  who  by  reason  of  their 
talent  and  future  opportunities  neither  desired 
nor  were  able  to  obtain  a  complete  training,  the 
instruction  shall  be  concentrated  upon  the  most 
important  matters,  and  the  time  of  instruction 
shall  be  limited  to  Sundays. 

(b)  For  the  more  talented  and  ambitious,  two 
courses  shall  be  organized,  one  for  the  apprentice, 
and  another  for  the  journeyman.  The  instruction 
shall  be  given  on  week-day  evenings.  The  course 
of  study  for  the  apprentice  shall  be, — written  com- 
positions pertaining  to  industries  of  all  sorts, 
industrial  arithmetic,  geometry  for  industrial 
purposes,  and,  finally,  drawing  along  the  lines 
of  these  two  studies. 

In  the  higher  course,  mathematics  and  drawing 


4o     Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

(including  modeling)  shall  be  continued.  There 
shall  be  added  to  these,  industrial  physics  and 
mechanics,  industrial  chemistry,  and  finally,  book- 
keeping and  the  chief  principles  of  trade  economy. 

3d.  The  attendance  upon  the  industrial  con- 
tinuation school  is  voluntary.1  Hereby  it  is 
further  ordered  that  all  must  attend  the  ordinary 
Sunday  school  in  so  far  as  they  are  not  in  attend- 
ance upon  one  kind  or  another  of  the  continuation 
schools.  Regularity  of  attendance  shall  be  in- 
sisted upon,  and  repeated  unexcused  absences 
shall  be  punished  by  expulsion,  and  the  obligation 
to  attend  the  Sunday  school. 

4th.  The  industrial  continuation  school  shall 
charge  a  tuition  proportioned  to  the  local 
conditions. 

5th.  All  industrial  continuation  schools  are 
district  institutions.  The  immediate  supervision 
and  guidance  shall  be  in  the  hands  of  a  district 
board,  which  may  call  to  its  assistance  mechanical 
trade  specialists  and  the  principal  of  the  school, 
who  shall  form  a  subcommission,  for  the  purpose 
of  planning  and  supervising  instruction. 

6th.  The  district  is,  in  the  first  instance,  re- 
sponsible for  the  expenses  of  the  school.  An 
effort  shall  be  made  to  have  the  district  corpora- 
tion vote  an  annual  sum  regularly,  and  it  is  ex- 
pected that  the  local  trade-weaver's  union  and 
guilds  will  share  the  expenses,  particularly  in  the 

1  It  was  believed  that  such  a  regulation  would  attract  only 
the  most  talented  and  ambitious. 


Historical  Sketch  41 

cases  of  the  poorer  children.  In  so  far  as  the 
expenses  are  not  met  in  this  way,  the  royal  author- 
ity is  empowered  to  appropriate  certain  sums  to 
be  paid  by  the  State. 

(d)  Continuation  Schools  for  Girls.  In  the 
early  'fifties  provision  was  made  in  Stuttgart  to 
instruct  the  girls  in  bookkeeping  and  correspond- 
ence, and  soon  other  cities  followed  the  example. 
The  necessity  was  obvious.  Many  girls  must 
sooner  or  later  provide  for  their  own  livelihood, 
and  also  assist  in  maintaining  others.  Frequently 
an  unworthy  or  incapacitated  husband  must  be 
supported.  A  separate  department  in  the  con- 
tinuation school  was  established  for  girls  in  1861. 
The  course  of  study  embraced  all  kinds  of  house- 
hold work  and  all  branches  of  the  industrial  and 
commercial  school. 

(e)  Teachers.  The  theoretical  and  literary 
studies  were  taught  by  the  public-school  teachers. 
The  drawing  courses  were  given  by  teachers  of  the 
higher  schools,  and,  whenever  possible,  by  men  of 
practical  experience,  who  were  appointed  on  a 
part-time  basis.  Only  in  the  larger  schools  were 
drawing  teachers  placed  on  a  full-time  basis. 

(/)  Economic  Conditions  and  Continuation 
Schools  in  Their  Reciprocal  Relation.  The  rise  of 
industrial  and  commercial  schools  went  hand  in 
hand  with  an  undeniable  advance  in  trade  and  in 
industry.  Already  in  the  year  1863,  Marlen 
described  the  economic  condition  of  Wurttemberg 
as  follows : 


42     Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

In  no  other  field  of  economic  advance  has  Wtirttem- 
berg  experienced  such  a  complete  change  during  the 
last  generation  as  it  has  in  the  field  of  manufacturing, 
and  this  in  direct  connection  with  trade  and  trans- 
portation. It  is  the  period  in  which  Wurttemberg 
went  over  from  a  predominatingly  agricultural  status 
to  one  of  manufacture  and  wholesale  industry. 

Genauck  says  with  reference  to  this  period : 

The  entire  horizon  and  social  position  of  the  indus- 
trial classes  changed  wholly,  and  the  productivity 
of  men  and  trades,  and  thereby  the  National  prosperity, 
were  more  than  doubled.  To-day  the  percentage  of 
population  engaged  in  industry  ranges  from  36  to  38 
per  cent,  and  the  ever  rapid  increase  is  meeting  few 
obstacles  in  its  path.1 

The  necessary  reciprocal  effect  of  this  advance 
in  economic  conditions  was  favorable  to  continu- 
ation and  trade  schools. 

Owing  to  their  great  differences  [as  Genauck  says], 
the  achievements,  as  well  as  the  means  and  manner 
through  which  the  results  were  accomplished,  were 
similar  in  nucleus  only,  and  perhaps  not  every  one 
recognized  how  in  these  schools  even  the  germ  of 
something  higher  would  develop  itself.  In  how  unin- 
tentional and  unforeseen  a  manner  institutions  grow 
into  independent  forces  that  could  not  have  been 
wrought,  even  if  premeditated,  except  by  long  and 
repeated  trials!1 

1  Die  gewerbliehe  Erziehung,  by  Carl  Genauck,  1882,  p.  3. 


Historical  Sketch  43 

B.    Bavaria 

One  can  say  in  general  that  Bavaria  in  compari- 
son with  Wurttemberg  proceeded  rather  slowly  to 
change  the  continuation  schools  into  those  of  the 
industrial  type. 

With  reference  to  religious  and  cultural  educa- 
tion, the  law  of  1803  was  one  of  the  earliest  and 
the  best,  and  with  few  exceptions  is  still  in  force 
to-day.     The  following  are  the  chief  stipulations: 

1st.  In  all  cities,  centers  of  trade,  and  villages, 
Sunday  schools  shall  be  erected  and  sessions  shall 
be  held  (except  in  harvest  time)  on  every  Sunday 
and  legal  holiday. 

2d.     The  pupils  enrolled  were  to  be, 

a.  Journeymen 

b.  Apprentices 

c.  All  young  people  of  both  sexes. 

3d.  Attendance  on  the  part  of  journeymen 
was  to  be  voluntary.  Apprentices  were  obliged 
to  attend,  unless  they  could  show  a  certificate, 
granted  by  the  inspectors  and  pastor,  showing  a 
certain  degree  of  efficiency. 

4th.  All  boys  and  girls  between  the  ages  of 
twelve  and  eighteen  years  inclusive,  in  cities, 
market  centers,  and  villages  are  obliged  to  attend. 

5th.  "We  decree,  that  the  first  half  hour  of 
the  instruction  shall  be  devoted  to  religion  and 
morals." 

The  other  subjects  were  reading,  writing,  and 
arithmetic.     The  time  devoted  to  instruction  was 


44     Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

arranged  to  suit  local  conditions,  but  two  hours  a 
week  was  the  minimum  amount  permitted.  The 
sexes  were  to  be  instructed  separately,  when 
possible. 

Even  to-day,  the  country  districts  and  small 
villages  have  no  better  continuation  schools. 

The  proof  that  the  law  was  passed  for  the  most 
part  in  the  interest  of  the  Church,  is  evidenced  by 
the  fact  that  both  sexes  were  to  be  the  recipients 
of  its  blessings.  When  economic  and  social  ends 
are  to  be  attained,  then  one  may  be  assured  that 
Germany  will  look  out  for  the  boys  first. 

There  were  relatively  few  trade  schools  before 
1870,  and  the  reason  for  this  may  be  traced,  with- 
out doubt,  to  the  exceptionally  strong  influence 
of  the  clergy  in  school  matters. 

C.    Baden 

In  addition  to  the  causes  favoring  industrial 
education,  already  mentioned  with  reference  to 
the  other  States,  Baden  enjoyed  a  decided  advan- 
tage in  having  had  exceptionally  far-sighted  princes 
whose  influence  upon  industrial  school  legislation 
was  very  progressive.  As  early  as  1803,  industrial 
instruction  was  instituted  for  young  people 
engaged  in  weaving  or  handicraft. l 

In  1834,  trade  schools  were  erected  in  all  lead- 
ing industrial  cities  of  the  Grand  Duchy.  They 
were  planned  for  such  young  people  as  were  secur- 

1  See  Lexis,  Das  technische  Unterrichtswesen,  book  in.,  p.  166. 


Historical  Sketch  45 

ing  practical  industrial  experience,  and  the  students 
were  to  obtain  such  knowledge  and  dexterity  as 
would  make  an  intelligent  pursuit  of  their  trade 
possible.1  The  subjects  to  be  studied  were  free- 
hand drawing,  arithmetic,  geometry,  industrial 
economy,  and  bookkeeping.  The  schools  pre- 
supposed the  knowledge  gained  in  the  public 
schools  only.  Pupils  who  had  not  completed  the 
public  schools  attended  the  ordinary  continuation 
school  and  studied  drawing  only  in  the  trade 
school.2  The  greater  part  of  the  expense  was 
borne  by  local  communities,  although  many 
schools  secured  a  subsidy  from  the  State,  or  a 
private  endowment.  A  small  tuition  fee  was  also 
charged.  The  direction  of  the  schools  was  en- 
trusted to  a  school  committee  that  was  composed 
of  the  mayor,  the  first  pastor  of  each  religious 
confession,  three  men  engaged  in  the  industry,  a 
technical  specialist,  if  there  was  one  in  the  place, 
and  the  principal  of  the  school. 3 

In  the  course  of  the  following  thirty  years,  we 
note  a  rise  in  these  schools  in  many  ways,  and  a 
standstill  in  others. 

The  instruction  shall  be  given  on  Sundays,  holidays, 
and  in  the  evenings  of  the  weekdays,  at  least  six 
hours  a  week  for  each  class.  As  a  rule,  the  course 
shall  cover  a  period  of  three  years,  and  never  less 
than  two.4 

1  See  Lexis,  op.  cit.,  p.  167. 

2  Ibid.,  p.  167.  3  Ibid.,  p.  168.  «  Ibid.,  p.  168. 


46     Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

The  introduction  of  freedom  of  trade  in  1862 
brought  on  a  period  of  depression  in  the  trade- 
school  activity,  inasmuch  as  the  compulsory  at- 
tendance system  was  abolished,  and  the  entrance 
into  the  schools  was  left  to  the  discretion  of  the 
parents  or  guardian. 

Some  years  later  the  schools  were  again  actively 
supported  and  fostered  by  legislative  enactment. 
Of  this  we  shall  learn  more  in  the  next  chapter. 

D.    Saxony 

The  Kingdom  of  Saxony  is  a  mountainous  region 
which  furnishes  a  great  deal  of  water  power  and 
is  rich  in  minerals.  Though  the  mountains  afford 
a  great  variety  of  climate,  they  make  the  land 
unsuitable  for  agriculture  on  an  extensive  scale. 
Conditions  have  produced  various  types  of  inhabit- 
ants which  may  be  grouped  as,  first,  the  mountain- 
eer class,  who,  on  account  of  the  uncertainty  of 
employment  in  the  mines,  engage  in  agriculture 
as  a  side  issue,  and  second,  a  class  of  buyers  and 
traders,  including  those  engaged  in  transporta- 
tion, who  transport  the  minerals  or  products  by 
boat,  and  import  foodstuffs  and  textile  goods. 

Out  of  these  two  classes,  there  has  been  built 
up  in  the  course  of  time  a  third  class,  who  by  their 
activity,  industry,  and  intelligence  have  accumu- 
lated wealth.  The  great  variety  of  climate  and 
the  economic  conditions,  the  concentration  of  a 
large  population  in  a  small  area,   the  constant 


Historical  Sketch  47 

touch  with  all  the  luxury  that  wealth  makes  pos- 
sible,— all  this  in  the  course  of  time  has  produced 
a  many-sided,  industrious,  and  intelligent  people 
such  as  the  Saxons  represent. 

In  the  Saxon  soil,  the  Reformation  struck  its 
deepest  roots,  and  here  also  industrial  education, 
as  a  sort  of  new  " Reformation,"  was  received  with 
open  arms.  Of  the  125  more  important  trade 
schools  in  Saxony  at  the  present  day,  five  were 
founded  before  1830*  and  six  more  had  reached 
the  zenith  of  their  prosperity  before  1850.  Before 
the  founding  of  the  German  Empire,  trade  and 
industry  were  highly  developed,  and  were  being 
supported  by  more  than  twenty  industrial  and 
ten  commercial  continuation  schools.  Aside  from 
these,  the  more  important  communities  and  centers 
had  already  inaugurated  before  1830  industrial 
continuation  schools  with  voluntary  attendance. 
Their  object  was  to  supply  the  deficiencies  of  the 
public  school  training  and  to  complement  the 
practical  experience  of  the  shops  with  a  good 
theoretical  course.  Furthermore,  it  was  thought 
that  the  growing  youth,  those  who  had  just  been 
confirmed,  should  be  afforded  an  opportunity  to 
make  good  use  of  free  time  instead  of  wasting  it 
in  riotous  amusement  and  dissipation. 

In  Saxony,  as  was  the  case  in  other  States,  these 
schools  were  supported  in  the  beginning  by  phil- 
anthropists and  guilds;  later,  more  and  more  by 
the  cities  and  the  State. 

A  century  of  industrial  education, — that  is  one 


48     Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

of  the  reasons  why  Saxony  is  to-day  the  heart  of 
the  German  manufacturing  region. 

E.    Prussia 


(a)  Character  of  the  First  Schools.  The  first 
attempts  to  help  handicraft  date  from  1705.  In 
that  year  Semmler  founded  a  mathematical  handi- 
craft school  in  Halle.  In  the  year  1747,  Hecker 
founded  a  mathematical  Realschule  in  Berlin.1 
Many  other  endeavors  in  this  direction  found  a 
receptive  soil  in  Prussia  just  before  the  year  1806. l 

Review  schools,  institutions  for  the  furtherance 
of  religion  and  morals,  often  under  the  name  of 
Sunday  schools,  appeared  by  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  These  came  into  existence 
for  the  most  part  through  local  initiative, 
frequently  intelligently  fostered  by  the  local 
government.  In  certain  parts  of  "Schlesien," 
particularly  in  the  district  of  Oppeln,  compulsory 
attendance  at  Sunday  school  (Catholic),  based  on 
laws  dated  1763,  1765,  and  1801,3  was  in  force  up  to 
within  the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

Nevertheless,  the  achievements  in  the  continu- 
ation school  field  before  the  last  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  were  relatively  insignificant. 


1  See  Schmoller,  Das  untere  und  mitilere  gewerhliche  Schulwesen 
in  Preussen,  1 88 1. 

2  Ibid. 

3  Verwaltungsbericht   des    Konigl.   Preuss.   Landesgewerbeamts, 
1905,  p.  2. 


Historical  Sketch  49 

(b)  Attempts  of  the  Minister  of  Education  to 
Foster  Continuation  Schools.  Not  until  the  decree 
of  the  Minister  of  Education  in  1844,  did  the  con- 
tinuation schools  experience  something  of  a  revival. 
This  report  gives  a  survey  relative  to  the  number 
of  pupils  at  the  time,  although  rather  unreliable 
as  to  data  concerning  the  general  continuation 
schools.  However,  one  point  is  clear,  and  that  is, 
that  the  number  of  and  attendance  upon  such 
schools  were  small.1 

The  figures  for  the  industrial  continuation 
schools  in  the  cities  seem  to  have  been  tabulated 
more  accurately.  Fifty-eight  such  schools  are 
credited  with  1761  pupils.  Be  it  understood,  in 
this  instance,  that  a  numerical  conception  of  the 
continuation  schools  meagerly  illustrates  the  situ- 
ation. The  oldest  statistical  material  is  practically 
worthless,  and  it  does  not  improve  much  until 
the  'seventies,  though  it  would  be  overstating  the 
matter  to  assert  that  it  is  good  even  then. x 

In  1846,  the  Minister  of  Education  issued  an 
additional  decree,  more  suitable  to  the  needs  of 
the  people.  Apparently  a  large  part  of  the  clergy 
sympathized  with  the  project  quite  whole-heart- 
edly. Many  so-called  continuation  schools  arose 
and  prospered,  only  to  fall  quickly  into  decline. 
These  organizations  could  not  endure  permanently 
as  there  were  no  funds  with  which  to  pay  the 
teachers.     It   was   a   demonstrated   impossibility 

1  Verwaltungsbericht  des  KonigL  Preuss.  Landesgewerbeamts, 
1905,  p.  4. 

4 


50     Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

to  build  a  permanent  institution  that  depended 
on  the  unpaid  services  of  the  public  school  teach- 
ers. Least  of  all  could  it  be  expected  that  the 
much  under-paid  teacher,  kept  busy  through  the 
week  and  the  Sunday  morning  service  with  his 
official  duties,  should  teach  on  Sunday  afternoon 
or  evening  without  remuneration. 

Though  the  officials  of  the  cities  often  voted 
certain  sums,  and  societies  frequently  assumed  the 
financial  burdens,  nevertheless,  lack  of  money  was 
the  prevailing  condition.  The  following,  taken 
from  the  government  report  of  1848,  is  typical  of 
the  means  of  support  of  these  earlier  schools:  "A 
continuation  school  has  been  organized  in  Perle- 
berg.  For  its  benefit,  His  Most  Serene  Highness, 
Prince  of  Sayn- Wittgenstein  will  give  an  annual 
concert,  and  this  will  no  doubt  secure  permanence 
for  the  institution."1 

(c)  The  Moderate  Results.  Complaints  are  found 
in  nearly  all  reports  regarding  lack  of  interest  and 
irregularity  of  attendance.  An  official  report  of 
Trier  thus  alludes  to  the  condition  of  affairs : 

We  must  again  declare  our  respectful  opinion,  that 
there  can  be  no  hope  of  a  general  advance  in  the  con- 
tinuation school  field  as  long  as  compulsory  attend- 
ance is  not  favorably  considered,  and  the  communities 
are  averse  toward  making  any  sacrifices  by  which 
means  may  be  raised  to  pay  the  teachers  for  these 
additional  services. 

1  Verwaltungsbericht  des  Konigl.  Preuss.  Landesgewerbeamts , 
I905,  P-  50. 


Historical  Sketch  51 

Except  in  Silesia  and  in  Posen,  and  later  in  the 
district  of  Arnsberg,  there  was  no  compulsory 
attendance.  On  the  contrary,  the  Minister  of 
Education  held  firmly  to  the  belief  that  compulsion 
was  inadmissible  and  that  it  was  desirable  to  dis- 
continue the  enforcement  of  any  laws  compelling 
attendance. 

Also,  the  spending  of  State  funds  for  these 
schools  was  against  principle.  Their  support  was 
a  matter  wholly  dependent  upon  communities, 
societies,  or  private  initiative.1 

The  history  of  the  next  twenty  years  is  practi- 
cally one  long  vain  attempt  to  help  these  schools 
advance.  In  1863,  the  Minister  of  Education 
issued  new  instructions  in  the  hope  that  new  life 
might  be  instilled  into  these  schools,  and  at  the 
same  time  he  requested  information  relative  to 
the  subject  of  compulsory  attendance.  Concern- 
ing this  decree,  we  read  as  follows: 

The  government  reports  show  little  that  is  encou- 
raging to  the  Minister.  Unsuitable  hours  of  instruc- 
tion, late  in  the  evening,  and  free  hours  on  Sunday, 
frighten  away  most  apprentices.  Only  the  more  far 
sighted  of  the  Master  workmen  realized  the  utility 
of  the  new  organizations,  and  above  all,  there  was  an 
insufficiency  of  funds.  The  schools  declined  as 
rapidly  as  they  had  arisen.  Compulsory  attendance 
found  scarcely  an  advocate ;  however,  in  many  reports 
there  was  the  desire  expressed  that  compulsory  attend- 

1  Verwaltungsbericht  des  Konigl.  Preuss.  Landesgewerbeamts, 
1905,  P-  5. 


52     Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

ance  be  instituted  for  the  retarded  and  backward 
pupils  of  the  graded  schools,  because  of  the  very 
deficient  education  of  so  many  apprentices.1 

We  read  further: 

On  the  positive  side,  nothing  was  accomplished 
either  on  the  part  of  the  government  or  on  that  of 
the  community.  For  a  long  time  Prussia  followed  in 
the  rear  relative  to  this  movement.2 

In  1850,  the  few  provincial  trade  schools,  which 
had  existed  in  various  parts  of  the  State,  received 
a  new  stimulus  in  that  the  State  proposed  to  pay 
one  half  of  the  expenses,  provided  the  schools  came 
up  to  certain  requirements. 3  But,  owing  to  unfor- 
tunate organization,  the  schools  seem  to  have 
been  of  little  service.  We  read :  "The  remark  was 
often  made  by  the  higher  class  of  educated  manu- 
facturers and  engineers  that  'Our  Prussian  Pro- 
vincial trade  schools  don't  amount  to  anything.'  " 4 
The  small  part  played  by  these  schools  in  the 
industry  of  the  time  is  further  shown  by  the  scant 
attendance,  which,  in  1867,  was  only  1146.  "But 
what  significance  may  we  attach  to  1146  pupils 
for  the  whole  state  of  Prussia  in  1861,  when  we 

1  Verwaltungsbericht  des  Konigl.  Preuss.  Landesgewerbeamts, 
1905,  p.  8. 

3  Schmoller,  Das  untere  und  mittlere  gewerbliche  Schulwesen 
in  Preussen. 

3  See  Schmoller,  Ein  Wort  iiber  den  neuen  Organisations  plan 
fur  die  Preuss.  Provinzialgewerbeschulen,  1870;  also,  Verwaltungs- 
bericht des  Kgl.  Preuss.  Landesgewerbeamts,  1905,  p.  6. 

*Ibid. 


Historical  Sketch  53 

have  534,556  handicraft  workers,  and  558,321 
journeymen  and  apprentices!"1 

(d)  The  Schools  with  Special  Reference  to  Berlin. 
The  story  of  the  continuation  schools  of  the  capital 
of  the  Empire  may  well  arouse  astonishment,  espe- 
cially when  we  behold  the  magnificent  schools  of 
to-day  and  consider  that  in  1818,  there  were 
27,000  children  of  school  age  of  which  8000  at- 
tended no  kind  of  school  whatever.     (See  p.  20.) 

It  is  not  strange  that  under  these  circumstances, 
the  Berlin  handicraft  apprentice  showed  an  alarm- 
ing degree  of  ignorance,  and  that  those  who  had 
attended  merely  common  schools  were  far  from 
possessing, — as  the  old  common  law  required, — 
"that  adequate  knowledge  suitable  to  the  life 
station  of  each  rational  individual."  A  public- 
spirited  man  devoted  himself  to  the  relief  of  this 
clamoring  critical  state  on  behalf  of  the  people, 
who  were  in  despair. 

In  1798,  Professor  Muchler  issued  a  public 
request  for  subscriptions,  to  be  used  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  Sunday  school  that  could  offer  sup- 
plementary instruction  to  handicraft  apprentices. 
This  call  found  active  supporters  among  the  well- 
wishing  and  well-to-do  classes  in  Berlin,  thus 
making  it  possible  to  open  two  Sunday  schools  in 
1799. 2 

In  1819,  there  were  five  schools  in  Berlin,  with 

1  Ibid. 

2  Grumbach,  Die  Entwicklung  des  berlinischen  Fortbildungs- 
schulwesens,  p.  7. 


54      Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

a  total  attendance  of  188  pupils,  of  which  number 
71  attended  regularly,  61  frequently,  and  56  very 
irregularly.  The  attendance  was  controlled  by 
a  system  of  stamps.  Red  stamps  were  given  the 
apprentice  when  he  was  present  in  school,  and 
green  stamps  as  excuses  for  absence  when  detained 
by  the  master  workman. 

In  1828,  the  number  of  pupils  reached  250,  and 
the  number  of  schools  seven,  of  which  one  was  a 
school  for  girls. 

The  schools  were  wholly  under  the  supervision 
of  the  society,  but,  in  spite  of  the  blessings  that 
they  brought  to  the  people,  certain  guilds  and 
private  schools  bitterly  opposed  them.1 

Regarding  the  advance  of  industrial  education 
in  1849,  we  read: 

Successful  as  these  Sunday  schools  were,  never- 
theless in  their  purpose  and  essence  they  were  only 
supplementary  to  the  common  schools.  The  handi- 
craft apprentice  was  given  the  opportunity  to  acquire 
such  facts  and  discipline  as  may  have  been  wholly 
neglected  in  his  elementary  school  course.  The  need 
of  real  industrial  continuation  school  instruction  was 
not  unrecognized.  In  spite  of  this,  the  institutions 
for  that  purpose  were  of  very  modest  character. 2 

The  first  three  continuation  schools,  supported 
directly  by  the  city,  were  instituted  in  1 849.     Their 

1  See  Grumbach,  op.  cit.,  p.  II. 

» Grumbach,  Die  Entwicklung  des  berlinischen  Fortbildungs- 
schulwesens,  p.  17. 


Historical  Sketch 


55 


purpose  was  to  give  to  those  young  people  already 
in  trade  or  industry  an  opportunity  to  make  up 
any  part  of  their  previous  neglected  schooling; 
also  to  review,  and  become  more  thoroughly 
grounded  on,  already  acquired  facts;  and  finally 
to  attain  a  higher  scientific  education,  if  perchance 
life's  opportunity  or  ambition  should  awaken  such 
an  interest.1 

The  hours  of  instruction  for  those  engaged  in 
industry  were  from  eight  to  one  o'clock  Sunday 
morning.  Each  session  was  begun  by  a  short 
enthusiastic  religious  service.  The  studies  pur- 
sued consisted  of  reading,  writing,  arithmetic, 
drawing,  German,  French,  English,  physics,  chem- 
istry, natural  history,  citizenship,  and,  later, 
bookkeeping  was  added. 

Table  Showing  Attendance  upon  City  Continuation 
Schools 


HANDICRAFT    WORK- 

Number 

Master 

MEN 

Winter 

Commer- 

Semester 

of 

Work- 

Journey- 

Appren- 

Total 

cial 

Pupils 

men 

men 

tices 

Students 

1849-50 

800 

1850-51 

II76 

8 

24I 

602 

851 

94 

1851-52 

1200 

— 







89 

1852-53 

1 105 

II 

222 

516 

749 

146 

1853-54 

1150 

II 

188 

655 

854 

123 

1854-55 

1150 

7 

162 

595 

764 

157 

1855-56 

988 

4 

108 

57i 

683 

120 

1856-57 

1 123 

4 

147 

686 

837 

137 

1857-58 

II88 

7 

163 

740 

910 

120 

Ibid.,  p.  19. 


56     Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 


HANDICRAFT     WORK- 

Number 

Master 

MEN 

Winter 

Commer- 

Semester 

of 

Work- 

Journey- 

Appren- 

Total 

cial 

Pupils 

men 

men 

tices 

Students 

1858-59 

I249 

6 

155 

722 

883 

132 

1859-60 

1260 

4 

138 

828 

970 

I40 

1860-61 

1280 

3 

127 

790 

920 

150 

I86I-62 

1234 

2 

110 

783 

895 

144 

1862-63 

1 190 

2 

87 

832 

921 

123 

1863-64 

1223 

3 

98 

805 

906 

127 

1864-65 

1 160 

3 

95 

783 

881 

Il6 

I865-66 

1254 

5 

87 

893 

985 

125 

1866-67 

IO74 

0 

62 

739 

8oi 

90 

1867-68 

1 105 

2 

69 

811 

882 

107 

1868-69 

"39 

1 

54 

766 

821 

IOI 

1869-70 

1172 

— 

89 

710 

799 

144 

1870-71 

1000 

— 

54 

610 

664 

99 

1871-72 

1138 

— 

62 

700 

762 

993 

1872-73 

1 129 

88 

733 

821 

118 

Age  of  Participants  in  the  City  Continuation  Schools 


Age 

1850 

1852 

1853 

1854 

1855 

1856 

1857 

1858 

1859 

i860 

1861 

14-16 

218 

235 

348 

307 

266 

347 

403 

377 

470 

453 

450 

17-20 

571 

528 

536 

620 

567 

567 

549 

623 

583 

638 

611 

21-24 

196 

150 

134 

123 

83 

133 

130 

152 

125 

104 

100 

25-30 

142 

114 

85 

77 

53 

53 

80 

71 

61 

63 

55 

31-40 
Over 
40 

49 

72 

47 

20 

16 

13 

21 

22 

17 

18 

15 



1105 

1150 

3 
1150 

3 
988 

5 

1118 

5 
1188 

4 
1249 

4 
1260 

4 
1280 

3 

Total 

1176 

1234 

Age 

1862 

1863 

1864 

1865 

1866 

1867 

1868 

1869 

1870 

I87I 

1872 

14-16 

524 

588 

644 



487 



541 

677 

620 



7  27 

17-20 

530 

485 

383 



500 



521 

409 

306 



300 

21-24 

101 

104 

84 



54 



38 

42 

41 



63 

25-30 

23 

31 

34 



27 



27 

33 

21 



36 

31-40 

10 

12 

10 



6 



12 

II 

12 



3 

Over 

40 

3 

3 

5 

Total 

1191 

1223 

1 160 

1254 

1074 

1105 

1 139 

1172 

1060 

1138 

1 1 29 

Historical  Sketch  57 

The  tables  showing  the  frequency  of  attendance 
and  the  age  of  the  students  bring  to  light  some 
interesting  facts.  We  note  the  total  number  of 
handicraft  workers  changes  but  little ;  but  there  is 
a  constant  decline  in  the  number  of  master  work- 
men and  journeymen,  which  is  made  up  by  a  cor- 
responding increase  in  the  number  of  participating 
apprentices. 

In  the  age  table,  we  see  that  the  number  over 
twenty-one  years  of  age  is  marked  by  a  steady 
decline,  and  those  over  twenty-five  years  by  a  still 
greater  decline;  on  the  other  hand,  the  number 
of  participants  between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and 
sixteen  increases  constantly. 

This  phenomenon  is  noticed  also  in  American 
schools,  and  explained  for  the  most  part  by 
the  fact  that  the  instruction  in  the  case  of 
the  older  people  is  not  productive  of  positive 
results,  and  hence  they  become  more  easily 
discouraged. 

Each  student  paid  fifteen  Silbergroschen  quar- 
terly to  the  one  in  charge  of  the  building.  The 
apprentices  were  excused  from  payment  inasmuch 
as  the  majority  of  them  were  not  in  a  financial 
position  to  pay  anything  at  all.1 

The  organizing  of  the  city  continuation  schools 
had  the  effect  of  reducing  the  attendance  upon 
the  schools  previously  established  through  the 
initiative  of  the  Society  already  mentioned.  In 
1857,  new  regulations  for  apprentices  were  made, 

1  Aufwendungen fur  die  Stddtischen  Fortbildungsanstalten. 


58      Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 


that  put  new  life  into  these  schools.1  The  total 
number  in  these  Vereinssonntagsschulen,  as  they 
were  called,  was  as  follows: 

1857,  224;   1859,  641;   1861,  919;   1863,   1143; 
1865,  2044; 1867,  1369; 1869,  1113; 1871,  614. 

Expenses  for  the  City  Continuation  Schools2 


VARIOUS  SOURCES 

Cost  of 
Mainten- 

Contribu- 
tions of 

Guilds 

Year 

Total 

ance 

Students 

Endowment 

Commercial 

(Taler) 

(Taler) 

Club 

1850 

2871 

339 



IOO 

35 



I«55 

4094 

166 

300 

IOO 

59 

459 

i860 

4003 

240 

300 

IOO 

57 

467 

1865 

3684 

163 

300 



396 

696 

1870 

3280 

129 





77 



1872 

2952 

165 

"~ 

76 

— 

4.  The  Situation  in  General  before  the  "Seven- 
ties." The  issuing  of  the  Gewerbeordnung  of  the 
German  Federal  States  in  1869,  which  regulated 
all  matters  pertaining  to  trade,  commerce,  and 
industry,  had  the  effect  of  reducing  the  attendance 
upon  these  schools.  This  was  because  it  was  no 
longer  possible  to  carry  out  the  compulsory  attend- 
ance provision.  The  contributions  of  the  guilds 
also  disappeared. 

After  compulsory  attendance  upon  the  public 
schools  was  instituted  throughout  all  Germany,  it 
was  believed  that  the  Sunday  schools  could  be 

1  Aufwendungen  fiir  die  Stadtischen  Fortbildungsanstalten,  p.  30. 
a  See  Grumbach,  Die  Entwicklung  des  berlinischen  Fortbildungs- 
schulwesens,  p.  28. 


Historical  Sketch  59 

dispensed  with;  that  from  then  on  the  required 
education  would  be  adequate  to  meet  the  necessi- 
ties of  the  trade  and  the  farming  classes.  The 
regulations  governing  Sunday  continuation  schools 
in  some  States,  for  example  in  Baden,  were  for- 
mally abolished;  and  in  others,  for  example  in 
Prussia,  they  were  no  longer  enforced.  This 
hope  proved  to  be  as  erroneous  as  the  one  that 
the  communities  would  voluntarily  maintain 
such  schools. 

Pache  sums  up  the  situation  prevailing  in  Ger- 
many during  the  period  prior  to  the  " Seventies'* 
in  the  following  words : 

By  the  introduction  of  the  Gewerbefreiheit  (freedom 
in  trade),  the  power  of  the  guilds  was  broken;  hence 
the  Sunday  schools  supported  by  them  lost  prestige 
or  disappeared  altogether,  so  that  the  German  con- 
tinuation school  system,  in  so  far  as  one  may  speak 
of  it  by  that  title,  enjoyed  only  a  troubled  existence 
up  to  the  "Eighties." 


Ill 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  SCHOOLS  SINCE  THE 
FOUNDING  OF  THE  EMPIRE 

I.  Transition  to  a  New  Era.  Many  signs  in- 
dicate that  just  at  the  time  of  the  re-forming  of  the 
German  Empire,  life  was  reawakened  in  the  in- 
dustrial schools.  The  number  of  laws  dealing  with 
the  industrial  school  question  is  exceptionally 
large.  The  mass  of  material  written  on  this  sub- 
ject in  the  "Seventies"  shows  an  extraordinary 
growth.  The  statistics  dealing  with  the  schools 
that  were  founded  in  that  decade  indicate  that 
the  industrial  and  commercial  education  was 
looked  at  no  longer  as  an  experiment.  The  long 
period  of  private  enterprise,  and  the  social  work 
performed  by  societies,  guilds,  and  self-sacrificing 
individuals  began  to  bear  rich  fruitage.  The 
governments  of  the  several  States,  which  up  to 
this  time  had  taken  no  decisive  position,  began 
now  to  look  upon  these  schools  as  a  means  of  rais- 
ing the  social  and  economic  power  of  the  Nation.  s 

1  Until  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  even  two 
decades  beyond,  the  State  governments  showed  an  exceedingly 
weak  initiative  in  this  field  of  education. — Siercks,  Das  deutsche 
Fortbildungsschulwesen,  p.  23. 

60 


Schools  Since  the  Empire  61 

The  opening  of  commercial  schools  followed 
close  upon  the  establishment  of  trade  schools. 
In  the  previous  chapter  we  have  seen  that  before 
the  year  1870,  bookkeeping  was  nearly  always 
introduced  as  a  special  branch  as  soon  as  the  con- 
tinuation school  took  on  the  character  of  a  trade 
school.  Additional  commercial  subjects  followed 
with  advancing  development.  We  note  further 
that  legislation  after  1870  takes  cognizance  in  like 
manner  of  the  necessities  of  both  commercial  and 
industrial  education. 

The  founding  of  these  schools  and  the  course  of 
their  development  show  in  reality  a  repetition  of 
the  history  of  the  trade  schools,  although  perhaps 
in  a  lesser  degree.  The  following  citations  from 
school  men  well  known  in  this  particular  field  of 
education  give  a  clear  picture  of  the  whole  transi- 
tion period.     For  example,  Roscher  says: 

The  inventions  of  the  last  century  gave  rise  to 
art,  spinning,  and  weaving,  as  well  as  perfecting 
other  industries.      Those  inventions  also  created  new 

Since  the  founding  of  the  Empire,  more  has  in  reality  been 
accomplished,  than  in  centuries  previous,  not  only  as  regards 
the  number  of  institutions  organized  but  also  in  the  detailed 
development  and  scope  of  their  function. — Pache,  Fortbildungs- 
schulwesen,  p.  23. 

A  marked  turning  for  the  better  did  not  set  in  until  the  second 
decade  after  the  founding  of  the  Empire.  This  was  brought 
about  by  virtue  of  the  power  of  the  Empire  to  make  the  attend- 
ance compulsory,  also  because  of  a  national  and  economic  ad- 
vance that  necessitated  a  better  civic  education  and  made  the 
question  of  industrial  efficiency  a  live  issue. 


62      Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

branches  of  industry,  particularly  the  building  of  the 
steam  engines,  operators,  locomotives,  steamships, 
chemical  industries,  etc.  In  mechanical  drawing,  re- 
placing the  earlier  perspective  art  of  drawing,  an 
easier  method,  whereby  the  measuring  was  made 
possible  directly,  was  now  introduced.  This  favored 
technical  progress  greatly.  Trade  freedom  placed 
higher  demands  on  the  capacity  of  the  industrial 
manager  and  laborer.  To  meet  these  qualifications 
is  the  purpose  of  the  industrial  schools.1 

From  Karl  Schroder  we  read2: 

Owing  to  the  impressive  advances  in  the  field  of 
science,  particularly  natural  science,  owing  to  the 
manifold  inventions,  and  the  perfection  of  machinery, 
as  well  as  to  industrial  exhibitions,  which  have  always 
enjoyed  a  large  and  observing  class  of  visitors,  nearly 
all  manufactures  have  experienced  a  gigantic  growth. 
Through  the  railroads  and  telegraphs,  through  the 
banks  and  credit  institutions,  as  well  as  through  the 
gradual  changes  in  law,  business  transactions  have 
advanced  so  far  and  become  so  complicated  that  even 
now  the  knowledge  offered  and  the  skill  acquired  in 
the  elementary  schools  are  absolutely  inadequate  as 
a  preparation  for  the  independent  management  of  an 
establishment.  It  is  only  necessary  to  look  about  ob- 
servingly  in  a  shop,  factory,  or  trading  establishment 
to  be  clearly  convinced  that  a  tradesman  without  a 
thorough  equipment  of  natural  and  mathematical 
science,   without  accuracy  and  facility  in  drawing, 

1  Roscher,  Handworterbuch  der  Staatswissenshaften,  p.  1088. 
3  Karl  Schroder,  Die  gewerbliche  Fortbildungsschulet  1871. 


Schools  Since  the  Empire  63 

and  in  industrial  bookkeeping,  is  not  able  to  meet  the 
responsibilities  of  our  time. 

Experiences  and  proofs  are  not  wanting  which 
illustrate  in  the  most  striking  manner  the  great  value 
of  the  above  described  education,  or  the  great  dis- 
advantage in  its  non-possession.  In  most  localities 
a  large  number  of  handicraft  workers  are  not  capable 
of  making  use  of  a  legible  drawing  or  cost  estimate  to 
guide  them  in  their  work.  A  natural  result  is  that 
much  work  is  not  given  over  to  them  in  the  first 
place,  and  because  they  are  not  able  to  gauge  their 
own  costs  to  the  selling  price  correctly,  they  are  likely 
to  labor  at  a  loss,  or  finally  to  lose  out  under  stress 
of  competition. 

Handicraft  workers  who  at  the  same  time  manage 
a  little  store,  are,  as  a  rule,  not  competent  to  keep 
their  books  in  such  a  condition  that  they  will  show  a 
true  condition  of  their  possessions. 

In  another  connection  the  author  says,  with 
reference  to  the  necessity  of  founding  industrial 
continuation  schools: 

The  more  important  that  industry  is  for  a  district, 
the  quicker  and  more  zealously  must  the  carrying 
out  of  this  idea  be  agitated,  if  the  industrial  diligence 
is  to  be  kept  powerful  and  prosperous,  and  finally 
lead  to  the  rise  and  the  extension  of  the  welfare  and 
the  culture  of  the  people !  It  may  safely  be  expected 
that  wherever  the  industrial  continuation  schools 
are  properly  directed  and  organized,  with  competent 
teachers  and  suitable  equipment,  they  will  bring  a 
blessing  to  the  citizens,  and  will  be  industriously  and 
thankfully  made  use  of! 


64      Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

Already  for  many  years  the  heavy  burdens  placed 
upon  all  phases  of  industrial  life  have  led  numerous 
industrial  leaders  and  economists  to  seek  the  causes 
of  the  evils,  and  to  recommend  means  of  relief. 

Learned  and  unlearned,  conservatives  and  progres- 
sives, protectionists  and  free-traders  are  all  agreed 
that  German  industry  lost  many  an  important  posi- 
tion in  the  great  world  market,  because  German  wares 
were  far  excelled  in  aesthetic  form  and  in  the  more 
effective  blending  of  colors.  In  addition  to  this,  the 
English  and  American  goods  excel  in  quality,  in 
service,  and  in  solid  construction.  For  these  reasons 
the  home  consumer  makes  use  daily  of  many  articles 
of  foreign  production.  This  gloomy  outlook,  which 
presents  itself  unsought  on  all  sides,  emphasizes 
strongly  enough  "that  it  is  high  time  that  the  German 
tradesman  be  placed  in  a  position  again  whereby  he 
may  once  more  compete  in  the  great  world  market 
as  well  as  in  the  small  inland  trade." 

At  the  present  moment  those  in  our  midst  who 
are  beginning  their  career  as  handicraft  workers 
possess  neither  technical  knowledge,  a  developed 
taste,  nor  the  necessary  commercial  preparation. 
Consequently,  our  small  tradesmen  are  wanting  in 
all  prerequisites  necessary  to  a  successful  business 
pursuit.  This  view  shared  by  the  thinking  people 
of  all  classes,  has  awakened  a  general  desire  for  indus- 
trial continuation  schools,  in  which  the  future  handi- 
craft worker  and  small  trades  people  generally  may 
secure  such  knowledge  and  discipline,  which  is  not  to 
be  obtained  in  the  elementary  schools  or  workshop, 
and  a  preparation  for  an  orderly  and  successful  pur- 
suit of  their  vocation.  Discerning  friends  of  human- 
ity,  civic  organizations,   state  and  local   governing 


Schools  Since  the  Empire  65 

bodies  have  not  only  given  their  attention  to  this 
important  type  of  educational  institutions,  but  have 
voted  considerable  sums  for  their  erection  and  support. 

All  the  pressing  necessities  of  our  time  may  be 
gradually  moderated  and  finally  overcome  entirely 
through  one  means  only,  i.  e.,  through  an  increased 
efficiency  of  our  handicraft  classes. 

The  suggestions  which  I  shall  make,  in  this  connec- 
tion, at  the  present  time,  are  no  Utopian,  world- 
reforming  theories,  but  such  as  have  proved  themselves 
entirely  capable  of  being  carried  out  and  brought  to 
a  successful  issue. 

The  losses  and  shortcomings,  which  I  have  shown 
to  be  a  result  of  our  absolutely  insufficient  vocational 
training,  come  to  light  on  all  sides  in  Northern  Ger- 
many, and  I  desire  through  my  openly  expressed 
opinion  to  lend  my  influence  to  the  end  that  this 
dangerous  lethargy,  which  threatens  the  entire  down- 
fall of  our  already  suffering  handicraft  class,  may  be 


In  1879,  the  Society  of  Diligent  Industry  drew 
up  the  following  answer  to  the  question,  Are 
Vocational  Schools  necessary?  "Vocational  schools 
are  necessary  in  order  to  prepare  the  student  for 
the  extreme  specialization  of  present  day  industry, 
and  also  to  give  him  an  opportunity  to  obtain  an 
all  round  knowledge  and  discipline  in  his  chosen 
work."2 

1  Karl  Schroder,  Hervorragende  Forderungsstatten  des  deutschen 
Handwerks,  1877,  pp.  1-4,  and  120. 

2  Hermann  Grothe,  Die  technischen  Fachschulen  in  Europa 
und  Amerika,  p.  11, 

5 


66      Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

2.  The  Condition  of  Industrial  Schools  about 
1877.  By  the  following  statistics  we  hope  to 
prove  what  the  above-quoted  writers  have  main- 
tained. We  also  observe  how  far  North  Germany- 
continues  behind  the  South  German  States. 

The  Grand  Duchy  of  Hessen  had  a  population  of 
884,500  and  48  handicraft  schools,  enrolling  2822 
pupils. 

The  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden  with  a  population  of 
1,500,000  possessed  40  trade  schools,  enrolling  6000 
pupils. 

The  Kingdom  of  Wurttemberg,  the  population  of 
which  numbered  1,880,000  had  153  industrial  contin- 
uation schools,  enrolling  12,000  pupils. 

(In  addition  to  this,  all  these  States  have  estab- 
lished compulsory  attendance  upon  the  general 
continuation  school.) 

Consequently  the  four  South  German  States  are 
represented  by  a  population  of  9,264,000  by  500 
industrial  continuation  schools  and  39,000  pupils. 

Even  if  we  do  not  go  so  far  as  to  take  the  leading 
State,  Wurttemberg,  as  a  model,  but  content  ourselves 
with  the  average  of  the  four  Southern  States,  and 
compare  that  average  with  the  situation  in  Northern 
Germany,  the  result  reveals  an  astonishingly  unfavor- 
able condition.  The  Kingdom  of  Saxony  with  its 
population  of  2,700,000,  would  need  to  show  145  in- 
dustrial continuation  schools,  enrolling  11,000  pupils. 
It  had  only  22  such  schools,  enrolling  4900  pupils! 
The  Kingdom  of  Prussia,  having  a  population  of 
25,700,000  should  have  1400  such  schools,  enrolling 
110,000  pupils.     Nevertheless,  it  had  only  213  in- 


Schools  Since  the  Empire  67 

dustrial  continuation  schools,  and  an  attendance  of 
21,724  pupils.1 

Hamburg,  a  city  of  300,000  inhabitants,  con- 
stituted an  exception.  It  was  a  powerful  com- 
mercial city  at  the  time,  and  its  industrial 
continuation  schools  were  in  a  high  state  of  pros- 
perity. In  the  winter  of  1875-76,  the  enrollment 
numbered  1564  pupils. 

The  reasons  for  the  backwardness  of  Prussia 
in  the  founding  of  industrial  schools  were  these: 

In  the  first  place,  it  was,  for  the  most  part,  an 
agricultural  State,  and  the  representatives  in  the 
governing  bodies  were  mostly  the  rich  landowners 
of  the  East  Elbe.  Fearing  a  migration  to  the 
cities,  they  opposed  industrial  schools. 

In  the  second  place,  Prussia  was  under  the 
strong  political  influence  of  the  conservative  rule 
of  William  I.  Concerning  this  point  Professor 
Gustav  von  Schmoller  wrote  in  1881  as  follows3: 
"  Naturally  the  political  vicissitudes  of  the  State 
were  contributing  causes.  It  was  a  time  in  which 
the  opinion  held  sway  that  the  State  should  leave 
all  affairs  of  that  kind  to  private  initiative  or  to 
local  societies.' ' 

3.    The  Development  of  Commercial  Schools. 

The   following   tables   give    a    summary   of    the 

1  Karl  Schroder,  Hervorragende  Forderungsstatten  des  deutschen 
Handwerks,  1877,  p.  115. 

2  Von  Schmoller,  Das  untere  und  Mittlere  gewerbliche  Schul- 
wesen  in  Preussen,  1881. 


68      Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

founding  and  of  the  distribution  of  these  schools. 
We  see  that,  in  reality,  their  course  of  develop- 
ment followed  exactly  the  same  path  as  did  that 
of  the  trade  schools. z 


Date  of 

Founding 

Number  of  Schools 

1880 

1896 

1.  Province  of  Saxony 

2.  "         "    Silesia 

3.  Rhine  Province 

4.  Province  of  Hanover 

5.  Bavaria 

1866 

1843 
1883 

1833 
1844 

4 
3 

8 
About  8 

11 

55 
21 

14 

About  23 

The  oldest  of  the  commercial  continuation 
schools  in  Germany  is  the  one  in  Gotha,  which 
was  founded  in  181 7.  The  initiative  of  Gotha  was 
followed,  in  1831,  by  Leipzig,  in  1833,  by  Gottin- 
gen,  in  1840,  by  Peine. 

In  the  decades  of 


1841-1850 

there 

were 

added 

9 

additional  institutions 

1851-1860 

11 

11 

" 

17 

" 

" 

1861-1870 

11 

" 

<< 

17 

n 

11 

1871-1880 

" 

11 

" 

35 

11 

<< 

1881-1890 

(i 

11 

11 

79 

<< 

11 

Before  1866  Prussia  possessed  only  seven  com- 
mercial continuation  schools.  According  to  esti- 
mates from  Glasser,  there  existed  193  commercial 
continuation  schools  in  Germany  in  1893. 2 

1  Zeitschrift  fur  das  gesamte  kaufmannische  Unterrichtswesen, 
1900.     Marz. 

2  Kaufmannisches  Fortbildungsschuhvesen,  1895.  Bericht  von 
der  Handelskammer  fur  das  Herzogtum  Braunschweig,  p.  12. 


Bavaria 

18 

Saxony- 

39 

Grand  Duchy 

of  Hessen 

6 

Baden 

13 

Prussia 

86 

Schools  Since  the  Empire  69 

In  1893,  the  representation  of  the  leading 
German  States  was  as  follows  : 

18  institutions,  enrolling  about  3100  pupils 
"      3800       " 

866  " 
"  1081  " 
..      74?I       «, 

These  tables  are  interesting  from  three  view- 
points : 

1.  The  great  increase  is  attained  in  the  decade 
1870  to  1880. 

2.  Prussia's  representation  is  disproportion- 
ately low  when  account  is  taken  of  the  number  of 
her  population. 

3.  The  districts  that  established  compulsory 
attendance  have  a  decidedly  larger  number  of 
schools  and  pupils. 

Exactly  the  same  observations  were  made  in 
our  survey  of  the  industrial  schools. 

4.  General  Survey  of  the  Laws  in  the  Leading 
States.  The  most  important  legal  measures  for 
industrial  and  commercial  continuation  schools 
are  found  in  the  Gewerbeordnung  of  1869.  Later 
these  were  embodied  in  the  laws  of  the  Empire. 
The  chief  regulations  were  as  follows : 

Art.  120.     Employers   are   obliged    to    grant    the 
necessary  time  to  all  their  employees,  under  eighteen 
1  Ibid. 


70      Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

years  of  age,  who  may  be  subject  to  attendance  upon 
a  local  or  State  continuation  school.  Instruction 
may  be  given  only  at  such  hours  on  Sunday  as  will 
not  interfere  with  the  main  church  service.  .  .  . 

Institutions  for  domestic  science  shall  also  be 
considered  as  coming  under  the  above  regulations. 

Compulsory  attendance  upon  a  continuation  school 
may  be  established  by  an  ordinance  of  the  community 
or  local  guild,  for  boys  under  eighteen  years  of  age 
and  for  girls  under  the  same  age  if  engaged  in  com- 
mercial pursuits.  This  regulation  obtains  in  so  far 
as  compulsory  attendance  does  not  already  exist  by 
virtue  of  State  law. 

By  the  law  of  the  Empire  dated  November  27, 
191 1,  the  right  of  compulsory  attendance  has  been 
extended  to  apply  to  girls  engaged  in  industry  as 
well.  In  order  that  regular  attendance  on  the  part 
of  the  pupils  may  be  insured,  and  the  necessary 
cooperation  of  the  parents  may  be  enlisted,  addi- 
tional ordinances  may  be  drafted  by  either  the 
community  or  the  guild.  Pupils  are  excused  from 
attendance  upon  a  continuation  school,  founded 
by  statute,  if  they  are  in  attendance  upon  a  guild 
school  or  other  trade  school  whose  curriculum  has 
been  credited,  by  the  local  authorities,  as  being 
equivalent. 

Art.  81  b.  Guilds  are  granted  the  special  privilege 
of  establishing  institutions  for  advancing  the  indus- 
trial, technical,  and  moral  development  of  master 
workmen,  journeymen,  and  apprentices.     The  right 


Schools  Since  the  Empire  71 

to  support  and  supervise  these  schools  falls  likewise 
within  their  province. 

Art.  103  e.  Abs.  3.  The  chambers  of  trade  are 
empowered  to  erect  and  support  institutions  for  the 
advancement  of  the  industrial,  technical,  and  moral 
development  of  master  workmen,  journeymen,  and 
apprentices. 

Art.  127.  The  master  is  obliged  to  keep  the 
apprentice  in  attendance  and  to  watch  over  him. 
He  must  give  the  apprentice  ample  time  and  oppor- 
tunity to  attend  church  service  on  Sundays  and 
holidays. 

Art.  127  b.  After  the  period  of  probation,  the 
apprentice  may  be  dismissed  before  the  term  of  his 
apprenticeship  expires,  if  he  neglects  his  school 
attendance. 

Art.  139.  Commercial  schools  established  by  the 
State  or  community  under  the  provisions  of  this  act 
shall  be  subject  to  the  regulations  that  have  already 
been  cited  for  the  industrial  schools.  Merchants 
shall  keep  all  helpers  and  apprentices  under  eighteen 
years  of  age  in  attendance  upon  the  same.  .  .  . 

In  addition  to  this  Imperial  legislation,  which 
confers  the  right  only  upon  the  municipality 
to  establish  compulsory  attendance,  the  several 
States  are  rapidly  developing  on  their  own  ac- 
count, legislation  which  has  for  its  goal  the 
establishment  of  compulsory  attendance  at  the 
continuation  schools  in  the  case  of  all  boys  and 
girls,  whether  they  are  engaged  in  commerce  or  in- 
dustry or  not.  We  shall  now  note  the  special 
laws  of  the  several  States* 


72      Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

(a)  Wiirttemberg.  From  the  enactment  of  the 
law  of  1836  until  1895,  no  essential  changes  were 
made.  By  the  new  ordinances  all  communities 
unless  adverse  conditions  make  it  impracticable, 
must  establish  a  general  continuation  school  as  a 
substitute  for  the  old-time  Sunday  school,  and  the 
same  type  of  schools  may  be  established  for  the 
girls. 

The  period  of  instruction  shall  extend  for  a 
period  of  two  years  of  forty  weeks  each,  and  not 
less  than  two  hours  per  week  shall  be  devoted 
to  instruction. 

In  localities  in  which  the  general  continuation 
school  has  not  yet  been  established,  the  old-time 
Sunday  school  is  to  remain.  The  period  of  at- 
tendance is  to  cover  three  years  of  forty  weeks 
each,  and  at  least  one  hour  per  week  is  to  be  set 
aside  for  the  purpose. 

Exemption  from  attendance  upon  these  schools 
can  be  secured  only  by  enrolling  in  a  higher  type 
of  school. 

According  to  the  law  of  1906,  each  community 
that  has  forty  male  workers  under  eighteen  years 
of  age,  who  are  engaged  in  industrial  or  commercial 
work,  must  establish  an  industrial  continuation 
school.     (Trade  or  business  school.) 

When  once  such  a  school  has  been  established, 
it  cannot  be  closed  until  the  number  of  pupils  has 
been  reduced  below  thirty,  and  even  then  the 
community  may  continue  such  school. 

Special  commercial  schools  will  be  established 


Schools  Since  the  Empire  73 

when  the  number  of  pupils  make  such  a  separation 
possible.  We  shall  reach  the  conclusion  at  the 
instance  of  tables  given  later,  that  the  number  of 
commercial  schools  is  still  relatively  small..  The 
duration  of  the  instruction  covers  a  period  of 
three  years  of  forty  weeks  each,  totalling  not  less 
than  280  hours  per  year. 

(b)  Bavaria.  The  Sunday  school  law  of  1803 
is  still  in  force  for  all  boys  and  girls  who  have 
finished  the  seventh  year  of  the  public  schools, 
provided  they  are  not  in  attendance  upon  a  school 
of  higher  rank.  The  law  has  undergone  various 
changes  since  its  first  enactment.  At  present,  a 
three-year  attendance  period  of  not  less  than  three 
hours  weekly  is  required. 

Since  1870,  industrial  and  commercial  schools 
may  be  established  through  local  ordinance .  They 
may  be  organized  independently  either  as  a  com- 
munity or  guild  school  or  as  a  private  institution. 
Also,  they  may  be  organized  in  connection  with  a 
six-year  Realschule. 

(c)  Baden.  Compulsory  attendance  at  con- 
tinuation schools  was  introduced  by  the  enact- 
ment of  the  law  of  1874.  Boys  are  required  to 
attend  for  two  years,  girls  for  one  year.  The  num- 
ber of  hours  devoted  to  instruction  are  two  weekly 
throughout  the  year.  However,  in  special  cases 
the  instruction  may  be  confined  to  the  winter 
months,  three  hours  per  week  instead  of  two  being 
the  assigned  number  in  such  instances. 

The  law  of  1898  provides  that  all  boys  engaged 


74      Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

in  industry  who  are  not  excused  from  attendance 
upon  the  continuation  schools,  shall  attend  an 
industrial  or  commercial  continuation  school  until 
they  are  seventeen  years  of  age. 

In  1902,  these  legal  provisions  were  extended  to 
apply  to  the  girls  engaged  in  industry. 

The  law  of  1904  provided  that  the  attendance 
upon  an  industrial  and  commercial  continuation 
school  might,  through  local  ordinance,  be  made 
compulsory,  for  those  under  eighteen  years  of  age 
irrespective  of  sex. 

The  majority  of  the  schools  require  an  attend- 
ance of  eight  hours  per  week. 

(d)  Saxony.  In  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony  the 
law  of  1873  provides  that  all  boys  who  have  passed 
the  common  school  age  must  attend  a  general 
continuation  school  for  a  period  of  three  years. 
Furthermore,  it  empowers  the  community  to 
extend  the  same  law  so  that  it  shall  affect  in  like 
manner  the  girls. 

The  number  of  weeks  per  year  during  which 
the  school  is  to  be  in  session  depends  largely  on 
the  number  of  hours  per  week  set  apart  for  in- 
struction. About  half  the  schools  are  in  session 
two  hours  per  week,  the  great  majority  of  the 
remainder  offer  their  facilities  for  four  hours,  and 
a  small  number  give  instruction  for  five  hours. 

Communities,  guilds,  etc.,  may  organize  indus- 
trial and  commercial  continuation  schools.  At- 
tendance upon  these  schools  exempts  the  pupil 
from  enrollment  in  the  above-named  class;  hence 


Schools  Since  the  Empire  75 

it  may  be  said,  that  the  latter  enjoy  a  sort  of 
indirect  obligatory  provision. 

(e)  Hessen.  By  virtue  of  the  law  of  1874,  each 
community  is  obliged  to  establish  a  continuation 
school,  which  the  boys  must  attend  for  a  period 
of  three  years.  The  number  of  hours  per  week 
is  fixed  at  six.  Such  institutions  may  be  estab- 
lished for  girls,  and  the  attendance  made  com- 
pulsory. Attendance  upon  an  industrial  or 
commercial  continuation  school  relieves  the  pupil 
from  the  obligation  of  enrolling  in  a  compulsory 
continuation  school. 

(/)  Prussia.  Energetic  measures  were  drafted 
in  1874  f°r  the  support  of  the  continuation  school 
system.  Accordingly,  the  State  pays  one-half  of 
all  expenses,  aside  from  expenditures  for  rooms, 
heat,  and  light.  This  obligation  is  assumed  by 
the  State  on  the  condition  that  attendance  has 
been  made  compulsory,  and  that  the  work  is  being 
done  according  to  an  approved  curriculum. 

The  most  important  step  looking  toward  con- 
tinued development  of  a  favorable  character  on 
the  part  of  the  industrial  and  commercial  con- 
tinuation schools  occurred  in  the  year  1884.  At 
that  time  the  industrial  schools  and  industrial  art 
schools  were  put  in  charge  of  the  Minister  of 
Commerce  and  Industry. 

In  1886,  a  very  unique  law  was  passed  for 
Posen  and  West  Prussia.  Here  the  schools  were 
regarded  as  a  political  institution  in  which  senti- 
ments and  influences  foreign  to  the  interests  of  the 


76      Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

Fatherland  might  be  crushed  on  the  one  hand,  and 
loyalty  for  a  united  Germany  fostered  on  the  other. 

These  schools  are  under  the  direct  supervision 
of  the  Minister  of  Commerce  and  Industry.  It 
is  only  by  permission  of  the  government  that  a 
school  may  be  placed  in  charge  of  the  district 
school  inspector. 

Practically  all  of  the  expenses  of  these  Eastern 
schools  are  borne  by  the  State. 


IV 


DISTRIBUTION     OF     CONTINUATION     SCHOOLS     FOR 
BOYS,  AND  MEANS  OF  SUPPORT 

i.  Wiirttemberg.  In  1906,  there  were  176 
Sunday  schools  exclusively  for  boys  and  269  at- 
tended by  both  sexes.1  Of  the  general  continua- 
tion schools,  there  were  1967  reserved  for  boys, 
and  156  to  which  both  sexes  were  eligible.  There 
were  152  industrial  continuation  schools  with  an 
enrollment  of  19,319  pupils.2  In  1907,  there  were 
153  industrial  continuation  schools,  with  an  en- 
rollment of  20,873  pupils.  Of  this  number  thirty- 
eight  provided  for  obligatory  attendance,  and 
had  an  enrollment  of  3912  pupils.  In  1908,  the 
number  of  commercial  continuation  schools  was 
eighteen,  and  of  these  five  were  independent  (three 
compulsory,  enrolling  1000  pupils,  and  two  volun- 
tary, enrolling  501  pupils)  and  thirteen  combined 
with  the  literary  school.3 

The  communities  have  the  right,  with  the  con- 

1  Throughout  this  division  the  number  and  the  enrollment  for 
separate  girls'  schools  will  not  be  given. 

3  Schilling,  Das  deutsche  Fortbildungsschulwesen,  p.  168. 
3  Ibid.,  1909,  pp.  70  and  114. 
77 


78      Schools  of  U.  S.  and  German 

sent  of  the  Oberschulbehorde,  to  charge  a  tuition 
fee,  which  varies  in  amount  from  I  to  15  Marks 
per  quarter  year.  The  communities  must  furnish 
the  rooms  and  equipment.  The  State  pays  one- 
half  the  actual  deficit  of  the  industrial  continua- 
tion schools,  no  matter  whether  tuition  is  charged 
or  not.  In  this  manner,  the  State  puts  a  premium 
on  a  minimum  tuition  rate.  The  State  subsidy 
for  the  general  continuation  school  is  not  as  liberal, 
thereby  furnishing  a  constant  incentive  for  chang- 
ing schools  into  the  industrial  type.  Should  the 
problem  of  extraordinary  expenses  arise  (new  build- 
ings, etc.),  a  special  agreement  between  the  Royal 
Commission  and  the  local  officials  must  be  reached. 

2.  Bavaria.  In  1904,  120,188  boys  were  en- 
rolled in  the  Sunday  schools.  In  addition  there 
were  328  industrial  continuation  schools,  of  which 
280  were  independent,  and  48  connected  with 
Realschulen.  Compulsory  attendance  was  estab- 
lished in  the  case  of  261  by  virtue  of  a  local  ordin- 
ance. The  enrollment  was  45,202.  To  these 
institutions  must  be  added  37  commercial  contin- 
uation schools,  of  which  II,  enrolling  1024  pupils, 
were  joined  with  Realschulen.  Of  the  remainder, 
13  were  independent,  enrolling  31 11  pupils,  and 
13  were  private,  enrolling  818  pupils.  Industrial 
societies,  guilds,  etc.,  supported  161  schools,  which 
enrolled  8207  boys  and  41 15  girls.1 

For  the  year  1900,  the  expenses  of  the  industrial 
1  Siercks,  Das  deutsche  Fortbildungsschulwesen,  p.  167. 


Distribution;  Means  of  Support      79 

and  commercial  continuation  schools,  schools  for 
mechanical  drawing,  and  guild  schools,  had  risen 
to  the  figures  cited  below: 

Total  expenses 686,243  Mk. 

Local  expenses  for  heat  and  light 189,939  " 

Expenses  of  the  municipalities 371,521  " 

"         "     "   districts I2,959  " 

"         "    '"    provinces 276,053  " 

"         "     "    State 63,380  " 

Endowments 55,137  "x 

Four  years  later  the  total  expense  had  risen  to 
1,035,305  marks. 

3.  Baden.  In  1906,  there  were  1636  general 
continuation  schools,  enrolling  about  5000  pupils, 
for  the  maintenance  of  which  the  municipalities 
were  taxed  about  200,000  Marks.2 

The  status  of  the  industrial  continuation  schools, 
the  trade  schools,  and  the  commercial  continuation 
schools  in  the  years  1893,  1899,  and  1902  is  shown 
in  the  tables  numbered  I.,  II.,  and  III. 

In  1906  there  were  127  industrial  continuation 
schools,  enrolling  2515  pupils  and  120  guest  pupils. 

The  total  expense  of  the  trade  schools  for  each 
of  these  three  years  was  respectively  as  follows : 

1893 305,595  Mks. 

1899 421,634    " 

1902 522,797    " 

In  1906,  there  were  52  trade  schools,  enrolling 
10,168  boys,  50  girls,  and  2170  guest  pupils.     In 

1  Lexis,  iv.,  p.  106. 

2  Siercks,  Das  deutsche  Fortbildungsschulwesen,  p.  167. 


80      Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

that  year  the  total  expense  of  trade  schools 
amounted  to  806,500  Marks,  of  which  the  State 
paid  223,700  Marks. 

The  total  expense  of  the  commercial  continuation 
schools  for  the  year  1902-03  amounted  to  156,635 
Marks .  The  maximum  tuition  that  may  be  charged 
is  24  Marks  yearly.  The  amount  of  the  State's  sub- 
sidy is  determined  as  follows :' "  In  Baden,  the  State's 
support  is  regulated  for  those  schools  joined  to  a 
trade  school.  It  consists  of  a  fixed  and  a  variable 
amount  contributed  toward  the  teachers'  salaries. 
The  first  amounts  to  600  Marks  yearly  and  the  house 
rent.  The  second  depends  upon  the  rank  of  the 
teacher.     It  may  reach  1700  Marks." 

"Trade  schools  and  industrial  continuation 
schools  may  charge  a  tuition  fee  not  to  exceed 
60  pfg.  per  month."2  Seventeen  schools  charged 
no  tuition  fee  whatever. 


Table  No.  I 

INDUSTRIAL  CONTINUATION 

SCHOOLS  3 

Year 

1893 

1899 

1902 

Number  of  Schools 

44 

50 

1,126 

17,275 

76 

I05 

1,732 

29,520 

93 

133 

2,121 

"        "  Teachers 

11         "  Pupils 

Amount  Contributed  by  the 
State 

36,640 

1  Zolger,  Das  kommerzielle  Bildungswesen,  p.  34. 

a  See  Lexis,  iv.,  p.  190.  » Ibid.,  iv.f  p.  191. 


Distribution;  Means  of  Support      81 


Table  No.  II 

TRADE  SCHOOLS1 


Number  of  Schools 

Number  of  Pupils: 

Regularly  Enrolled . . 

Guests 

Number  of  Teachers: 

Permanent 

Temporary 

Part-time 

Sources  of  Income: 

State. . . . . 

Municipality 

Endowment 

Other  Resources  (Tuition 
etc.) 


Year 


1893 


43 

5,520 
1,332 

59 
19 
32 

84,419  Mk 
168,478 
7,487 

45,2ii 


1899 


45 

7,055 
1,423 

79 
32 
29 

121,538  Mk. 

238,747 
8,020 

53,329 


1902 


46 

8,270 
i,474 

99 
31 
29 

174,739  Mk. 
299,408 
15,858 

62,752 


Table  No.  Ill 

COMMERCIAL  CONTINUATION   SCHOOLS2 


Number  of  Public  Schools . . . 

With  State  Subsidy 

Without  State  Subsidy. . 
Amount  of  State  Subsidy 


1893 


15 

7 

8 

3,900  Mk. 


Year 


1899 


18 

14 

4 

10.160  Mk. 


1902 


29 
25 

4 
17,650  Mk. 


4.     Saxony.     According  to  the  latest  reports 
the  Kingdom  of  Saxony  numbers  1966    general 


1  Lexis,  iv.,  p.  188. 
6 


3  Ibid.,  p.  193. 


82      Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 


continuation    schools,    enrolling    88,583    pupils. 
Of  this  number  only  seven  were  attended  by  girls. 
The  following  figures  show  the  status  of  the  indus- 
trial continuation  schools  and  the  drawing  schools. ■ 


Number 

Year 

of 
Schools 

Pupils 

Total  Expense 

State  Subsidy 

1884 

22 

4,551 

62,240  Mk. 

12,600  Mk. 

1889 

27 

6,972 

I894 

29 

7,086 

1899 

36 

9,OI9 

162,000 

40,000 

I904 

40 

9,139 

218,630 

These  schools  defray  39  per  cent,  of  their  ex^ 
penses  through  tuition. 

Relative  to  the  institutions  for  the  training  of 
teachers,  Lexis  gives  the  following  table:2 

Public  Schools 


3 

Wow 

V 

<Jtt) 

03 

a 

0 

si 

rt.tJ 

>-£ 
»C  g 

1884 

1889 

1S94 

1899 

1899 

1899 

Total 

No.  of  Schools 
No.  of  Pupils 
Dept.     for     Ap- 
prentices 

25 

32 

41 

4 

39 

5 

48 
(1906)  60 

Higher  Division 

2,539 

3,364 

4.819 

(1,041 
{     569 

2,693 

1, 085 

$,         ,54283 
I (1906)  7,4iS 

Income:(inMks.) 
Endowments 

Contributed    by 
Municipality 

Tuition 

Total  Income 

4,500 
253,415 

12,500 
324,461 

14.250 
422,204 
506,365 

6,152 

16,227 
245,770 
282,864 

IO.I93 

9,695 
190,307 
229,991 

25.215 

32,032 

16,345 

25,922 
461,292 
554.8873 

1  Lexis,  iv.,  p.  115.  a  Ibid.,  p.  148. 

3  Apparently  an  error  on  the  part  of  Lexis,  the  addition  is  not  true. 


Distribution;  Means  of  Support      83 


5.     Prussia.  The  following  perspective  shows  the 
growth  of  the  Prussian  continuation  schools  for  boys. 


Appropriated  by  the 

Number  of  Indus- 

Number   of    Pupils   of 

State  for  the  Industrial 

trial  and  Com- 

the Industrial  and 

Year 

and  Commercial 

mercial  Continuation 

Commercial  Continua- 

Continuation Schools 

Schools 

tion  Schools 

I874 

142,150  Mk. 

435 

37,830 

1884 

182,000 

644 

58,371 

1894 

790,000 

899 

111,017 

1904 

2,260,000 

1580 

203,386 

1905 

2,480,000 

The  earlier  figures  do  not  present  an  accurate 
picture,  because  the  schools  were  not  properly- 
classified  and  the  figures  for  many  are  wanting. 

Industrial  Continuation  Schools 


COMPULSORY 
ATTENDANCE 

VOLUNTARY 
ATTENDANCE 

TOTAL 

Year 

No.  of 

Schools 

No.  of 
Pupils 

No.  of 

Schools 

No.  of 
Pupils 

No.    of 
Schools 

No.  of 
Pupils 

1882 

1895 
I905-06 

335 

472 

1,301 

32,558 

56,147 

202,669 

288 

289 

94 

24,526 
44,270 
23,905 

623 
76l 

1,395 

57,084 
100,417 
226,574 

Number  of  Schools 


INDUSTRIAL    SCHOOLS 

COMMERCIAL   SCHOOLS 

Year 

With 
Compul- 
sory 
Attend- 
ance. 

Without 
Compul- 
sory 
Attend- 
ance 

Total 

With 
Compul- 
sory 
Attend- 
ance 

Without 
Compul- 
sory 
Attend- 
ance 

Total 

Guild 
Schools 

and 
Others 

I904 

1905 
I906 

1,183 
1,301 
1,450 

107 

94 

85 

1,290 

1,395 
i,535 

221 

254 
276 

69 
62 

58 

290 
316 
334 

428 
423 
409 

84      Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 


Number  of  Pupils 


[IN   INDUSTRIAL    SCHOOLS 

Guild  Schools 

and 

Others 

Year 

With 
Compulsory 
Attendance 

Without 
Compulsory 
Attendance 

Total 

1904 

1905 
1906 

174,494 
202,669 
240,951 

27,222 

23,905 
20,390 

201,716 
226,574 
261,341 

28,043 
28,124 
28,728 

Number  of  Pupils  in  Commercial  Schools 


Year 

With  Compulsory  Attendance 

Without  Compulsory 
Attendance 

Male 

Female 

Total 

Male 

Female 

Total 

I904 

1905 
I906 

27,181 
29,954 

927 
1,240 

22,603 
28,108 
31,194 

7,208 
6,655 

I,6l8 
1,982 

9,067 
8,826 

8,437 

The  classification  and  the  amount  of  the  State 
subsidy  are  shown  in  the  following  tables. 


INDUSTRIAL  CONTINUATION 
SCHOOLS 

COMMERCIAL    CONTINUA- 
TION SCHOOLS 

Year 

jn 
v  O 

if 

2o 

bo 

u  C  j. 

3  a>  3 

Amount  of 
Subsidy 
in  Marks 

m 
w."3 
(U  0 
X> J3 
C  O 

So 

GO 

p'3'5 

Amount  of 
Subsidy 
in  Marka 

1905 
1906 

1,345 
i,535 

1,209 
1,324 

1,575,573 
1,875,827 

316 

334 

158 
179 

120,921 
139,127 

Distribution;  Means  of  Support      85 


GUILD  SCHOOLS  AND  OTHERS 

Year 

Number 

of 
Schools 

Number 
Receiving 
Subsidy 

Amount 
of  Subsidy 
in    Marks 

Number 

of 
Pupils 

IQ02 
I903 

1905 
I906 

347 
362 

423 
409 

89 

98 

26,375 
25,469 

20,978 
22,853 

23,728 

In  1885,  Prussia  paid  182,000  Marks  for  con- 
tinuation schools ;  in  1903,  1,925,000  Marks;  and 
in  1906,  2,040,423.  These  figures  are  based  on  an 
addition  of  the  above  tables. 

The  maximum  charge  for  tuition  is  30  Marks 
per  year  in  the  commercial  continuation  schools, 
and  10  Marks  in  the  industrial  schools.  Often  the 
entire  instruction  is  free.  The  average  tuition  is 
10  Marks  for  commercial  and  6  for  the  industrial 
school. 

The  above  tables  show  that  the  number  of  indus- 
trial, commercial,  and  guild  schools  having  com- 
pulsory attendance  is  constantly  growing,  while 
the  number  of  those  having  voluntary  attendance 
is  decreasing.  The  increase  is  brought  about  in 
two  ways.  In  the  first  place,  the  majority  of  the 
schools  recently  founded  provide  for  compulsory 
attendance ;  in  the  second  place,  some  of  the  schools 
on  the  voluntary  attendance  basis  have  instituted 
compulsory  attendance. 

The  number  of  pupils  in  compulsory  schools 
also  shows  an  extraordinary  increase,  while  the 


86      Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

number  in  the  voluntary  attendance  list  is  on  the 
decline.  The  attendance  of  girls  in  the  commercial 
schools  constitutes,  however,  an  exception  to  the 
latter  tendency.  Attendance  in  both  classes  of 
schools  is  on  the  increase. 

6.  Summary  of  the  Various  Modes  of  Financial 
Support.  We  notice  that  a  slight  tuition  fee  is  the 
rule,  and  only  in  a  few  of  the  commercial  schools, 
having  voluntary  attendance,1  does  it  reach  a 
point  where  it  operates,  perhaps,  to  keep  the 
poorer  pupils  from  enjoying  the  advantages  of  the 
school. 2 

In  the  case  of  all  compulsory  schools  ample 
provision  is  made  to  excuse  payment  when  evi- 

1  Zolger,  Das  kommerzielle  Bildungswesen,  p.  34.  "The  cost  of 
tuition  varies  according  to  local  conditions,  and  is  reckoned 
according  to  a  variety  of  standards.  Sometimes  it  is  a 
fixed  yearly  sum,  which  is  uniform  for  all  grades,  or  again  it 
may  vary  according  to  the  grades.  Sometimes  it  is  paid  each 
half  year,  the  same  rate  being  paid  for  all  grades  or  varying 
according  to  the  number  of  subjects.  Again  it  is  reckoned 
by  the  month,  computed  according  to  the  number  of 
courses,  or  according  to  the  number  enrolled  and  the  hours  in 
attendance." 

In  Cologne  30  Marks  is  charged  for  one  subject,  and  40  Marks 
for  two  or  more. 

In  Magdeburg  the  tuition  is  3  Marks,  and  in  Breslau  10  Marks 
is  charged  for  the  same  work. 

2  A  rate  that  is  quite  customary  for  commercial  continuation 
schools  is  15  to  30  Marks  per  year.  The  remaining  expense  is 
apportioned  to  the  municipality,  chamber  of  commerce,  and 
State. — See  p.  16,  Verwaltungsbericht  des  Koniglichen  Preussi- 
schen  Landesgewerbeamtes. 


Distribution;  Means  of  Support     87 

dence  of  inability  to  pay  is  presented.1  It  was 
contended  for  a  long  time  that  the  tuition  fee  must 
be  set  aside  when  attendance  becomes  compulsory, 
but  that  conclusion  seems  to  have  been  false. 
Indeed,  in  many  cities,  for  instance  Berlin,  the 
instruction  is  entirely  free.  Some  few  schools  are 
supported  wholly  by  guilds  that  charge  no  tuition 
fee  nor  receive  help  from  either  municipality  or 
State.  Such  financial  independence  is  a  special 
source  of  pride. 2 

7.    The   Results   of   Compulsory  Attendance. 

The  results  of  compulsory  attendance  can  be  seen 
at  a  glance  from  the  enrollment  in  the  different 
States.  Practically  all  the  literature  of  the  present 
day  recommends  an  extension  of  the  system. 
There  are  those  who  contend  that  a  school  having 
voluntary  attendance  can  do  better  work  because 

1  Since  1909,  a  law  has  been  in  effect  in  Prussia,  which  provides 
that  the  employer  must  pay  the  tuition  and  provide  the  individual 
school  supplies  for  his  apprentices. 

3  The  American  visitor,  while  attending  holiday  festivities  of 
the  various  guilds,  will  wonder  at  first  why  so  many  of  the 
speakers  emphasize  so  strongly  the  financial  independence  of  the 
guild.  In  personal  conversation  with  the  members,  such  visitor 
will  have  his  attention  called  repeatedly  to  the  fact  that  "no 
tuition  is  charged,  all  expenses  are  paid  by  the  guild.  So  far  we 
have  been  able  to  get  along  without  asking  the  aid  of  either  city 
or  State,  'Gott  set  Dank.1 "  The  close  lines  of  social  stratification 
are  revealed  in  all  this.  Every  little  advantage  in  financial  con- 
dition, the  holding  of  an  office  (though  it  may  pay  nothing  at  all), 
family  standing,  etc.,  are  made  the  most  of.  Of  course,  to  this 
must  be  added  that  the  financial  independence  of  the  guilds 
gives  greater  freedom  in  the  management  of  the  school. 


88     Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

it  has  a  more  select  set  of  pupils,  but  the  experience 
of  many  school  men  and  schools  seems  to  have 
disproved  the  whole  idea.  Pache  has  very  concise- 
ly presented  the  argument  against  it,1  and  one 
finds  the  same  thoughts  repeated  frequently  in 
the  present-day  pamphlets.  Nothing  is  more  en- 
couraging than  to  find  that  more  than  10  per  cent, 
of  all  those  who  have  finished  the  compulsory 
industrial  or  commercial  course  still  continue  their 
work  voluntarily. 

1  The  voluntary  continuation  schools  do  not  have  better  pre- 
pared or  more  enthusiastic  pupils  than  have  the  compulsory 
continuation  schools.  The  voluntary  schools  are  not  in  a  position 
to  make  a  selection  of  pupils.  On  the  contrary,  like  their  sister 
institutions,  they  are  under  even  greater  pressure  to  open  their 
doors  to  all  kinds  of  people.  It  has  been  pointed  out  that  the 
voluntary  attendance  was  an  evidence  of  greater  ambition,  but 
one  forgets  that  the  young  people,  practically  without  exception, 
are  compelled  to  attend  the  schools  by  order  of  their  parents, 
employers,  or  guilds.  "Since  1869,  I  have  been  in  the  continua- 
tion school  service.  Long  years  of  experience  with  both  types 
of  schools  enable  me  to  agree  with  the  declaration  of  many  of  the 
most  respected  in  the  profession,  that  the  work  in  the  German 
compulsory  continuation  schools  is  pursued  with  a  faithfulness 
and  conscientiousness  that  will  bear  every  comparison.  Further- 
more, there  rings  throughout  every  German  alley,  the  old  com- 
plaint that  punctuality,  regular  attendance  obtain  in  few  schools 
having  voluntary  attendance,  and  that  the  success  of  the  work  is 
greatly  handicapped  thereby." — Pache,  Fortbildungsschulwesen, 
book  vii.,  p.  13. 


CONTINUATION  SCHOOLS  FOR  GIRLS 

i.     Sketch  of  Their  Historical  Development. 

After  the  German  girl  has  reached  her  four- 
teenth year,  her  advantages  in  the  way  of  schooling 
still  fall  far  behind  those  offered  the  boy.  The 
difference  in  the  legal  provision  for  industrial  and 
commercial  education  in  regard  to  school  attend- 
ance, length  of  term,  subject  matter  in  the  curri- 
culum, amount  of  money  expended  by  the  State, 
cities,  and  municipalities  is  so  great  that  a  special 
subdivision  is  necessary  to  set  the  reader  clear  with 
reference  to  these  particulars. 

Expressions  of  the  attitude  of  the  public  mind 
as  to  woman's  ability  to  learn,  her  fitness  for  indus- 
trial and  clerical  labor,  whether  wages  should  be 
paid  according  to  sex  or  in  accordance  with  the 
amount  and  the  quality  of  the  work  performed, 
and  as  to  whether  the  sexes  should  be  educated 
together  or  separately,  form  such  a  large  part  of 
the  current  literature  on  the  subject  of  the  indus- 
trial and  commercial  education  of  girls  that  no 
chapter  could  be  complete  without  a  passing  notice 
of  these  questions. 

89 


90      Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

As  long  as  the  "old  time  Sunday  school"  had 
as  its  chief  aims  religion  and  a  review  of  the 
public  school  studies,  we  find  that  the  girls  were 
accorded  like  opportunities.  The  clear-cut  ex- 
ample of  Bavaria  has  already  been  cited.  However, 
we  notice  that  practically  the  same  plan  obtains  in 
several  other  States. 

Before  the  founding  of  the  Empire,  efforts  to 
assist  the  girls  were  confined  to  a  few  of  the  larger 
cities  and  manufacturing  districts.  We  have 
already  called  attention  to  the  early  movement  in 
Wurttemberg.  In  the  early  part  of  the  previous 
century  a  public  spirited  woman  founded  the 
ZentralfeirertagsschuleS  in  Bavaria,  which  had  two 
divisions,  an  elementary  class  for  the  pursuit 
of  general  studies,  and  one  that  afforded  tuition 
in  sewing,  spinning,  and  knitting.  This  school  is 
said  to  have  been  at  the  height  of  its  prosperity  in 
the  Forties. 

In  the  Sixties,  schools  were  established  in 
Leipzig,  Dresden,  Breslau,  Hamburg,  and  other 
cities. 


2.  Present  Day  Demands.  Carl  Schroder,  in 
his  book  Hervorragende  Forderungsstatten  des 
deutschen  Handwerks,  published  in  1877,  ad- 
vances practically  all  the  arguments  for  industrial 
training  for  girls  that  are  commonly  heard  even  to 
the  present  day. 

1  Lexis,  p.  365. 


Schools  for  Girls  91 

At  that  early  date  he  emphasized  the  following 
points: 

1.  That  a  better  vocational  training  for  women 
was  quite  as  necessary  as  for  men; 

2.  That  the  unfortunate  who  are  thrown  on  their 
own  resources  must  be  so  equipped  that  they  will  be 
able  to  earn  their  livelihood; 

3.  That  women  must  be  trained  to  an  appre- 
ciation of  taste,  that  they  may  be  in  a  position  to 
make  their  work  really  interesting  and  financially 
profitable ; 

4.  That  poverty  had  already  brought  many  to 
despair  and  moral  ruin. 

In  spite  of  this  contention,  it  was  not  until  the 
last  decade  that  industrial  training  for  girls  was 
seriously  considered.  Nothing  in  the  whole  Ger- 
man school  system  is  more  interesting  and  im- 
pressive than  the  transition  favoring  a  more 
suitable  training  for  girls. 

At  present  it  is  becoming  more  and  more  obvious 
that  Germany  is  losing  the  old  conception,  which 
regarded  woman  as  a  home  worker  merely,  a  sub- 
ordinate to  her  husband,  a  nonentity  in  the  affairs 
of  the  practical  world,  a  memorizer  of  religious 
dogma,  a  subject  for  the  imposition  of  the  clergy, 
and  finally  an  executor  of  all  those  duties  that  no 
one  else  would  do. 

Dr.  Kerschensteiner,  the  celebrated  school  re- 
former, calls  attention  to  a  great  danger  in  the 
German  economic  life,  when  he  says,  "in  general  it 


92      Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

may  be  said  that  the  public  school1  without  the 
cooperation  of  the  home  makes  no  child  industrious, 
no  child  moral,  no  child  religious."2  This  is  just 
a  typical  opinion  that  is  being  often  repeated  to 
strengthen  the  cause  of  training  for  women  in 
continuation  schools. 

Despite  the  fact  that  woman  is  being  accorded  a 
new  position  in  Germany,  there  is  still  a  large 
industrial  class  where  family  influence  is  losing  its 
hold  on  children,3  owing  to  the  way  in  which 
modern  industry  has  taken  both  father  and  mother 
from  the  home. 4 

1  By  public  school,  Dr.  Kerschensteiner,  refers  to  the  regular 
eight-year  elementary  school.  He  hopes  to  impress  the  idea  upon 
the  people  that  girls  need  a  specific  training  in  home  making. 
This  notion  is  in  line  with  the  transition  to  which  we  have  re- 
ferred above. 

2  Kerschensteiner,  Grundfragen  der  Schulorganisation,  p.  146. 

3  Conrad,  Politische  Oekonomie,  5.  Aufl.  ii.,  Teil.,  p.  217. 

*  "  In  consequence  of  the  transformation  of  our  industrial  rela- 
tions and  the  development  of  the  public  life,  a  man  is  withdrawn 
from  his  family.  As  a  result,  the  responsibilities  of  the  home,  the 
rearing  of  the  children,  fall  upon  the  shoulders  of  the  woman. 
When  one  considers  that  the  education  of  the  great  majority  of 
the  girls  of  the  middle-class,  and  of  the  classes  still  less  fortu- 
nate, is  closed  at  the  fourteenth  year,  and  if  one  ponders 
still  further  that  the  rearing  of  girls  for  housewives  in  the 
above-mentioned  circles  is  for  the  most  part  very  inadequate, 
then  one  begins  to  realize  that  our  young  women  are  not  pre- 
pared to  meet  the  high  responsibilities  that  the  present  expects 
of  them. 

"  When  girls  strive  withall  possible  means  to  enter  the  marriage 
state,  wedlock  becomes  immoral.  Marriage  seems  then  to  have 
become  an  institution  of  maintenance.  Nothing  less  than  the 
lowering  of  that  high  moral  conception  of  economic  work  is 
involved  when  a  girl  begins  to  learn  a  trade,  only  after  she  has 


Schools  for  Girls  93 

It  is  the  fact  that  mothers  are  engaged  in  work 
outside  the  home  that  has  led  to  the  call:  "  Give 
to  us  women  the  education  and  opportunity  for  the 
expansion  of  those  powers  that  are  founded  in  our 
being!"1 

This  is  a  call 2  which  Germany  has  failed  to  heed 

given  up  all  hope  of  marriage,  and  finally,  disappointed  and 
embittered,  yields  to  the  pursuit  of  industry. 

"  The  compulsory  continuation  school  is  well  suited  to  lend  a 
helping  hand  in  all  directions.  The  general  education  will  be 
raised,  the  home  training  will  be  fostered  thereby,  and  the  pro- 
fessional training  will  be  anticipated.  If  girls  are  taught  to 
prepare  themselves  for  some  occupation  as  a  matter  of  course, 
then  many  unfortunate  existences  will  be  avoided,  and  the  way 
prepared  for  a  happy  marriage." — Pache,  Fortbildungsschulen, 
Band  F.,  p.  33,  1896. 

1  Ibid.,  p.  145. 

2 "  Because  of  economic  necessity,  many  women  have  taken 
up  gainful  occupations.  In  an  untold  number  of  instances,  the 
pursuit  of  productive  occupations  on  the  part  of  women  is 
followed  only  because  of  the  fear  of  hunger  and  misery.  For  this 
reason,  work  must  seem  to  them  a  misfortune,  not  to  say  a  curse. 
Hence,  we  have  accomplished  a  great  moral  achievement,  if  we 
make  possible  for  women  the  blessings  of  work  in  its  fullest  degree, 
and  prepare  them  for  life's  duties  by  means  of  a  deeper  theoretical 
and  more  thoroughly  practical  education.  The  German  people 
have  by  no  means  done  their  duty  in  the  field  of  education  for 
girls;  in  spite  of  all  worthy  attempts  on  the  part  of  several  States, 
i.e.,  Wurttemberg  and  Baden:  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  various 
German  cities,  the  net  status  of  the  continuation  schools  for  girls 
up  to  the  present  hour  is  one  to  be  ashamed  of.  In  all  quarters 
not  even  an  adequate  all-round  training  in  home-keeping  sub- 
jects is  provided  for.  Under  the  influence  of  modern  culture,  the 
responsibilities  attached  to  the  most  simple  economic  existence 
have  become  decidedly  more  complex.  The  girl  is  not  prepared 
to  grapple  with  the  increased  demands.  In  consequence  of  the 
factory  system,  in  consequence  of  our  active  public  life,  the  pros- 


94      Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

entirely  too  long  for  her  own  social  and  moral  best 
interest. 

3.  The  Necessity  of  Industrial  and  Commer- 
cial Continuation  Schools  for  Girls  from  the  Stand- 
point of  Statistics.  The  economic  status  of  a 
high  percentage  of  women  makes  it  imperative 
that  they  be  placed  in  a  position  to  support 
themselves. 

The  census  of  1907  showed  that  Germany  had 
798,000  more  females  than  males;  hence  it  is 
impossible  for  all  girls  to  marry.  According  to 
Conrad,  there  were  in  the  year  1895, ■  4,407,419 
unmarried  females  over  seventeen  years  of  age, 
and  2,157,769  widows.  Only  55.8  per  cent,  of  the 
females  over  seventeen  years  of  age  were  married, 
hence  only  a  little  more  than  half  had  their  natural 
support. 

The  census  of  the  years  of  1882,  1895,  and  1907, 
as  indicated  in  the  table  below,  shows  the  neces- 
sity of  giving  the  women  a  vocational  training. 
These  figures  reveal  that  the  number  employed  in 
gainful  occupations  is  steadily  increasing,  and  that 
the  number  occupied  in  trade  and  commerce  is 
exceptionally  high. 

perity  of  the  home  depends  almost  wholly  on  the  wife.  We  have 
laid  new  duties  upon  the  shoulders  of  the  woman,  and  our  people 
are  doing  nothing  to  help  her  to  meet  these  added  obligations. 
These  new  demands  require  a  thorough  training,  which  only 
continuation  schools  can  give." — Pache,  Fortbildungsschulwesen, 
Band  7,  p.  12,  1905. 

1  Figures  for  1907  were  not  available  on  this  point. 


Schools  for  Girls 


95 


Total  number  of  workers 

Men 

Women 
Women  engaged  in  industry 


commerce 


1882 


17.6  Mill 

13.3  " 
4.2  " 
1. 12    " 

298,000 


1895 


1907 


20.7  Mill 

26.7  Mill 

15.5      " 

18.5      " 

5-2 

8.2      " 

1.52    " 

2.10    " 

573,ooo 

931,000 

Attention  has  frequently  been  called  to  the 
fact  that  the  increase  in  the  number  of  women 
engaged  in  commerce  is  limited  to  those  occupying 
the  lower  class  positions,  whereas  the  number 
of  independent  positions  for  women  is  declining. 
This  observation  is  explained  by  two  causes:  in 
the  first  place  women  do  not  have  the  needed 
preparation;  in  the  second  place,  seldom  do  they 
devote  themselves  to  one  vocation  for  a  lifetime; 
hence  they  lack  an  experience  and  mastery  which 
only  the  men  attain.    Both  reasons  seem  plausible. 

4.  The  Present  Status  of  Industrial  Training 
for  Girls,  (a)  Wilrttemberg.  In  1906,  there 
were  1564  Sunday  schools  for  girls  only,  which  is 
nine  times  the  number  for  boys.  Of  the  general 
continuation  schools,  the  girls  had  487,  a  figure 
representing  about  two-sevenths  of  the  number 
provided  for  the  boys.  The  number  of  industrial 
continuation  schools  for  girls  {i.e.,  female  depart- 
ments of  industrial  continuation  schools)  was  15, 
enrolling  1018  pupils,  which  is  about  one-tenth 
of  the  number  of  schools  for  boys  and  about  one- 
twentieth  the  corresponding  enrollment.    In  addi- 


96      Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

tion,  there  were  32  schools  for  women  (Frauen- 
arbeitsschulen)  with  an  enrollment  of  6877 
pupils. 

(b)  Bavaria.  In  1904,  Bavaria  had  164,142 
girls  enrolled  in  the  Sunday  schools,  a  total  rep- 
resenting about  forty  to  fifty  thousand  more  than 
the  number  of  boys  enrolled.  This  difference  in 
the  enrollment  is  just  about  the  equivalent  of  the 
number  of  boys  that  were  provided  for  in  the  in- 
dustrial continuation  schools. 

Outside  of  Munich,  Niirnberg,  and  several  other 
large  cities,  nothing  is  done  on  the  part  of  the 
State  or  cities  for  the  industrial  and  commercial 
education  of  girls.  Schools  supported  by  trade 
societies,  guilds,  etc.,  had  a  combined  enrollment 
of  a  little  more  than  4000  girls. 

Bavaria  is  still  very  far  behind  in  the  provision 
of  trade  school  advantages  for  girls.  However, 
Munich  constitutes  a  distinct  exception  to  the 
general  situation  in  Bavaria,  not  so  much  because 
of  its  present  accomplishment,  as  for  what  it 
promises  to  be  within  the  next  decade. 

In  1895,  a  new  law  went  into  effect.  Girls  were 
allowed  to  take  the  eighth  year  in  the  public  school 
and  one  year  in  an  industrial  continuation  school. 
These  two  years  were  to  be  accepted  in  lieu  of  the 
three  years  of  required  attendance  upon  the  Sun- 
day school.  At  present  more  than  one- third  of  the 
girls  who  complete  the  seventh  grade,  take  the 
additional  eighth  grade,  which  is  soon  to  be  made 
obligatory  upon  all. 


Schools  for  Girls  97 

Nearly  one-half  of  the  girls  in  Munich  receive 
some  kind  of  industrial  or  commercial  instruction 
subsequent  to  the  public  school  course.  Every 
indication  points  to  the  early  establishment  of  this 
sort  of  instruction  for  all.  About  700  to  800  girls 
are  in  attendance  upon  the  Frauenarbeitsschule, 
which  has  a  faculty  of  more  than  fifty  teachers  and 
a  great  variety  of  courses. 

The  City  Commercial  School  for  Girls  enrolls 
more  than  500  girls.  The  institution  offers  an 
excellent  three-year  course.  The  tuition  is  18  to 
20  Marks  per  month,  but  there  are  about  seventy 
scholarships  for  needy  girls. 

(c)  Baden.  Since  1891,  the  continuation  school 
instruction  for  girls  may  be  supplemented  by 
instruction  in  domestic  science.  This  must  take 
place  through  the  initiative  of  the  municipality. 

The  amount  of  time  spent  on  domestic  science  shall 
correspond  to  that  allotted  to  the  regular  continuation 
school  work.  Besides  giving  practical  guidance,  the 
course  shall  be  planned  with  due  consideration  to  the 
local  conditions  of  the  municipality.  The  theoretical 
instruction  shall  embrace  drawing,  household  account- 
ing, information  as  to  the  construction  and  the  use  of 
living  and  sleeping  rooms,  heating  and  lighting  sys- 
tems, also  the  best  methods  of  washing,  care  of  clothing, 
food  values,  choosing  and  preserving  foods,  and  finally 
care  of  the  sick. 

The  number  of  girls  in  one  class  must  not  exceed 
36.  For  practice  in  cooking,  they  are  to  be  divided 
into  groups  of  not  more  than  six. 


98      Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

The  State  pays  part  of  the  original  expense  of  in- 
stalling this  instruction. 

There  are  106  municipalities  (figures  for  1901)  that 
have  availed  themselves  of  this  subsidy.  The  number 
of  girls  enrolled  was  3225,  whereas  the  entire  number 
attending  the  continuation  schools  was  15,305. 

The  instruction  usually  is  given  in  the  forenoon,  and 
lasts  for  a  period  of  four  hours.1 

The  Woman's  Club  of  Baden  has  installed  the 
''traveling  cooking  school"  (Wanderkochkurse) , 
attendance  upon  which  is  voluntary.  At  present 
there  are  300  such  stations.  Beside  instruction  in 
cooking,  the  girls  are  taught  hand  and  machine 
sewing,  tailoring,  free-hand  and  pattern  drawing, 
etc. 

In  1906,  the  commercial  schools  enrolled  1032 
girls.  In  the  same  year  the  trade  schools  enrolled 
only  50  girls. 

id)  Saxony.  Saxony  employs  more  women  in 
industry  in  proportion  to  its  population  than  any 
other  German  State,  and  attempts  as  little  as  the 
least  toward  fitting  women  for  their  work.  Very 
few  localities  have  availed  themselves  of  the  right 
to  make  compulsory  attendance  upon  the  con- 
tinuation school  for  a  period  of  two  years. 

In  1903,  the  total  number  of  pupils  enrolled  in 
the  continuation  schools  for  girls  was  only  2567, 
an  aggregate  which  was  only  about  h  of  that 
represented  by  the  enrollment  in  the  continuation 
schools  admitting  boys.     The  entire  number  of 

1  Lexis,  p.  388. 


Schools  for  Girls  99 

industrial  schools  exclusively  for  girls  and  women 
was  22,  and  in  an  additional  53  both  sexes  received 
admission.  The  entire  number  of  girl  pupils, 
according  to  the  last  report,  was  3251,  of  which 
number  124  were  non-residents  of  Saxony. 

Of  the  53  schools  for  both  sexes,  there  are, — 

26  for  teaching  lace  making,    enrolling  1328  girls 
2  "  "        wicker  work,  210     " 

1  "  "        industrial  drawing "  14    " 

Of  the  22  schools  to  which  only  girls  are  ad- 
mitted, ten  are  private  institutions,  nine  are 
supported  by  friendly  societies,  and  one,  the 
school  for  lace  making  at  Schneeberg,  is  a  State 
institution. 

Most  of  these  private  schools  have  a  hard 
struggle  for  existence.  Their  equipment  is  meager, 
but  notwithstanding  the  dearth  of  means  at  hand, 
they  do  very  good  work  indeed.  Such  schools  are 
largely  operated  by  self-sacrificing  individuals, 
who  hope  that  the  State  will  grant  a  subsidy  in  the 
near  future,  or  that  the  school  will  be  taken  over 
entirely  by  the  State. 

Several  of  the  higher  school  officials  expressed 
themselves  to  the  author  as  being  very  anxious 
to  do  something  later  on  for  the  girls,  but  for  the 
present  the  boys  claim  their  attention. 

(e)  Prussia.  Prussia  has  not  yet  enacted  any 
legislation  on  this  subject.  However,  the  120th 
section  of  the  Reichsgewerbeordnung  gives  the 
municipalities  the  power  to  make  attendance  upon 


ioo    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

a  continuation  school  compulsory  for  all  girls  who 
are  employed  in  commercial  work.  Up  to  the 
present  32  municipalities  have  made  use  of  this 
right.1 

The  entire  number  of  schools  (commercial, 
trade,  and  industrial  continuation  schools)  sup- 
ported by  the  State,  or  subsidized  by  the  State, 
was  in  1907,  114,2  and  the  enrollment  of  girls  in 
these  schools  was  10,798. 3  To  this  group  must 
be  added,  aside  from  the  private  schools  that  will 
be  discussed  later,  those  schools  that  are  supported, 
or  at  least  subsidized,  by  the  municipalities.  The 
number  of  such  schools  could  not  be  ascertained. 

As  an  illustration,  let  us  present  the  status  of 
Berlin.    There  are  exclusively  for  girls : 

9  city  continuation  schools  with  voluntary  attendance 

1  "     cooking  school  "  "  " 

2  schools  supported  by  friendly  societies  and  a  subsidy 

from  the  city 
2  schools  supported  by  the  Chamber  of  Commerce 

Total  14 

(/)  In  the  Whole  Empire.  According  to  a 
written  communication  from  the  president  of  the 

1  Schilling,  Das  deutsche  Fortbildungsschulwesen,  p.  151. 

2  Statistisches  Jahrbuch  fur  den  preussischen  Staat,  1908,  p.  193. 

3  A  statement  in  the  paper  Die  Frau  of  December,  1909,  gives 
the  information  that  2693  girls  are  in  attendance  upon  compul- 
sory commercial  continuation  schools  in  Prussia,  whereas  the 
number  of  boys  in  the  same  type  of  schools  reaches  36,847.  A 
State  subsidy  is  granted  to  120  industrial  continuation  schools 
for  girls. 


Schools  for  Girls 


TOT 


Kaufmannischer  Verband  fur  weibliche  Angestellte, 
Miss  Agnes  Heirman  of  Berlin,  there  were  in  the 
year  1908,  323  public  commercial  schools  for  girls 
in  the  whole  Empire. 
They  were: 

195  preparatory  commercial  colleges 
70  continuation  schools 
58  continuation  schools  with  compulsory  attendance 

The  issue  of  July  7,  1909,  of  the  paper,  Die  Zeit- 
schrift  fiir  weibliche  Handlungsgehilfen,  gives  the 
statistics  for  the  Empire  as  follows : 

If  we  limit  ourselves  to  the  consideration  of  the 
clerical  help  in  industry,  the  office  force  in  bureaus, 
and  clerks  in  commercial  establishments  and  insur- 
ance offices,  helpers  in  the  street- cleaning  department, 
hotels  and  restaurants,  we  shall  find  that  the  follow- 
ing distribution  obtains: 


Male 

Female 

Industry 
Commerce 
Insurance 
Transportation 

265,870 

452,551 

40,055 

21,208 

53,7io 

222,220 

3,375 

4,546 

Total  in  1895 

779,685 
358,373 

283,851 
94,870 

To  accommodate  779,685  male  workers  in  in- 
dustry and  commerce  more  than  500  compulsory 


102    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

continuation  schools  are  provided,  whereas  in  the 
case  of  the  female  workers  provision  is  made  for 
only  58  compulsory  continuation  schools.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  the  figures  just  cited  include 
all  the  adults  for  whom  the  continuation  schools 
are  no  longer  considered  applicable. 

In  the  division  " Commerce"  the  number  of 
"helpers"  was  estimated  as  consisting  of  232,774 
males  and  173,611  females. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  so  little  is  done  for  the 
further  training  of  the  girls,  it  is  but  natural  that 
a  great  number  of  private  schools  should  have 
arisen.  An  investigation  conducted  in  1906  by  the 
Kaufmannischer  Verband  fur  weibliche  Angestellte 
showed  that  in  sixty  large,  medium,  and  small- 
sized  cities  there  were  247  private  commercial 
schools  {i.e.,  industrial  undertakings  of  the  type 
just  referred  to,  not  charitable  institutions,  under 
the  auspices  of  some  friendly  society).  In  this 
total  the  numerous  "small  adventure  schools"  are 
not  included.  In  the  pedagogical  circles  of  the 
State  and  the  city  continuation  schools  great 
pressure  is  brought  to  bear  against  these  schools 
on  the  grounds: 

That  they  are  chiefly  money-making  schemes, 
That  they  have  as  a  rule,  poorly  qualified  teachers, 
That  the  pupils  are  prepared  too  hastily  and  in- 
adequately for  the  accomplishment  of  practical  work, 
That,  in  consequence,  the  labor  market  is  flooded 
with  inefficient  and  cheap  labor  forces,  a  condition  of 
things  which  has  the  effect  of  reducing  wages. 


Schools  for  Girls  103 

Finally,  it  is  added,  that  these  schools  publish 
false,  or  at  least  highly  exaggerated,  statements  of 
the  results  of  the  work  that  they  perform. 

In  all  these  charges,  there  is  indeed  some  truth. 
Nevertheless,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  there  are 
among  them  a  great  many  good  schools,  which 
enter  into  a  stimulating  and  beneficial  competition 
with  the  State  and  municipal  institutions,  and  thus 
act  as  a  constant  spur  toward  more  efficient  service. 

5.  Trade  Schools  for  the  Furtherance  of  Home 
Industry.1  In  general  one  can  say  that  home 
industry  is  losing  ground,  but  in  many  parts  of 
Germany  it  still  enjoys  a  prosperous  existence,2 
brought  about  by  unique  economic  and  social 
conditions,  and  by  traditions  of  long  establishment. 

The  chief  reasons  for  the  continuance  of  this 
type  of  industry  are  the  following: 

First,  there  are  many  wares  that  can  be  made  by 
hand  only;  then  the  rapid  changes  in  style  hinder  the 

1  It  seemed  best  to  treat  this  theme  in  the  chapter  dealing  with 
girls'  schools,  inasmuch  as  the  greater  number  of  these  trade 
schools  are  organized  for  girls,  or  at  least  girls  predominate  among 
their  pupils. 

2  "  Basket  making  in  the  district  of  Aachen,  in  Graven wiesbach 
in  lower  Taunus,  in  Bettingen  and  Daun  in  the  district  of  Bitburg, 
in  Ruppertshofen  in  Unterlahnkreise,  in  Gersfeld  in  the  upper 
Rhon,  in  Orsey  in  the  district  of  Diisseldorf,  in  Schurgast  in  the 
district  of  Oppeln  and  in  Gehland  in  the  district  of  Sensberg  of 
East  Prussia  are  all  excellent  examples. " — Verwaltungsbericht  des 
Konigl.  Preuss.  Landesgewerbeamtes,  1905,  p.  72. 

Annaberg  and  Buchholz  in  the  "Erzgebirge"  have  a  very 
prosperous  trimming  and  lace  industry,  whereas  the  making  of 
children's  toys  plays  a  great  rdle  in  "Thuringen. " 


104    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

machine  to  a  certain  extent  in  keeping  step  with  the 
new  demands;  and  finally,  certain  wares  may  be  made 
to  order,  at  times  when  the  workman  is  not  employed 
at  his  main  trade. 

The  chief  reasons  for  establishing  schools  to 
foster  this  special  form  of  industry  are  these: 

Among  all  peoples  and  nations  the  economic  law  of 
the  "greatest  gain  for  the  least  effort "  obtains.  There 
is  a  tendency  to  continue  doing  as  has  always  been 
done.  There  is  a  strong  aversion  in  Germany  against 
wholesale  manufacture  because  the  old  order  and 
traditions  are  thereby  set  aside.1  But  the  competi- 
tion of  wholesale  production  in  Germany  as  well  as 
that  of  foreign  markets  are  so  strong  that  without 
these  schools  many  localities  would  have  lost  their  in- 
dustry entirely.  The  schools  raise  the  work  to  the  stand- 
ard of  an  art,  since  only  through  beauty  and  never 
through  quantity,  can  handwork  be  made  to  compete 
with  the  products  of  the  machine.  In  many  instances 
these  schools  offer  a  means  of  relief  for  the  poor.2 

The  following  will  give  the  enrollment  and  a 
more  detailed  idea  of  the  origin  of  some  of  the 

1  For  this  reason  such  schools  are  not  to  be  found  in  the  United 
States.  The  various  industrial  types  have  no  long  and  well- 
e  tablished  traditions;  hence  there  is  absent  that  disinclination 
against  wholesale  production,  which  one  finds  in  Germany.  On 
the  contrary,  we  take  a  pride  in  doing  things  on  a  large  scale. 
We  boast  of  the  "biggest  mill,"  the  "biggest  factory"  in  the 
world. 

3  "The  schools  for  basket  making  also  belong  to  such  a  group 
since  most  of  them  are  little  removed  in  character  from  charitable 
institutions." — Lexis,  p.  6i. 


Schools  for  Girls  105 

more  important  schools.  The  manufacture  of 
mittens,  Handschufabukation,  is  especially  import- 
ant in  Prussia.  A  school,  opened  for  this  purpose 
in  Oppeln  in  1901,  had  as  pupils  in  1904  72  girls. 
The  tuition  is  free.  The  girls  receive  subsidies 
and  premiums  for  the  purpose  of  buying  machines 
of  approved  reputation.  The  city  furnishes  the 
rooms  and  the  light;  the  State  and  Chamber  of 
Commerce  defray  the  remaining  cost. 
In  1907,  there  were  in  Prussia: 

Course  in  Lace  making,  enrolling    57  girls 

School  for  Making  embroidery         "         590     " 

"       "   Sewing  mittens  73     " 

11       "       "      neckties  "  37     " 

Trimming  School  "  15     " 

The  school  for  sewing  neckties  at  Neuss  was 
organized  in  1894,  as  a  result  of  the  absolute 
necessity  of  having  better  trained  women  engaged 
in  this  line  of  work.  The  old  method,  in  the  pur- 
suit of  which  the  girls  were  taught  by  the  older 
women,  no  longer  rendered  those  who  had  enjoyed 
such  training  competent  for  the  work  to  be  done, 
nor  capable  of  earning  a  living  wage. 1 

The  course  consumes  two  years.  No  tuition  is 
charged;  on  the  contrary,  in  the  completing  year 
the  girls  are  partly  paid  for  their  work.  The 
school  is  supported  by  subsidies  provided  by  the 
State,  manufacturers,  friendly  societies,  the  city, 
and  the  Chamber  of  Commerce.    Girls  are  assisted 

1  Verwaltungsbericht  des  Konigl.  Preuss.  Landesgewerbeamts, 
1907,  p.  100. 


106    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

also  in  securing  machines.  For  a  time  the  State 
aid  was  withheld  because  the  manufacturers  no 
longer  continued  their  contributions.  The  State 
pursues  an  excellent  policy  in  securing  the  co- 
operation of  all  parties  interested. 

The  decline  of  the  once  prosperous  hat  manu- 
facture in  Luckenwalde  led  to  the  establishment  of 
a  school,  whereby  the  depleted  ranks  of  women 
skilled  in  the  art  of  trimming  might  be  refilled. 
The  manufacturers'  association  pays  all  expenses 
that  are  not  met  by  the  iooo  Marks  which  the 
State  contributes  annually,  plus  the  200  Marks 
that  are  set  aside  for  this  purpose  each  year  by  the 
city. 

In  Saxony  the  cities  of  Annaberg  and  Buchholz 
occupy  a  unique  position,  because  of  the  powerful 
hold  which  Hausindustrie  has  in  that  region. 
Thousands  upon  thousands  of  women  and  children 
are  employed  in  making  lace  and  trimmings.  In 
summer,  when  wages  are  too  low,  they  abandon 
their  work  to  labor  in  the  fields  or  hunt  berries. 
But  the  long  established  traditions  of  this  region 
and  the  marvelous  skill  acquired  through  genera- 
tions coupled  with  low  wages,  has  given  the  com- 
munity practically  a  world  monopoly.  However, 
some  years  ago  it  was  felt  that  these  industries 
should  receive  the  assistance  of  a  school,  where  the 
pattern  workers  could  learn  more  exactly  and 
quickly  the  demands  of  the  world.  Hence  a  school 
was  established.  Recently  a  new  school  was  in- 
stalled.   However,  up  to  the  present,  only  about 


Schools  for  Girls  107 

80  girls  study  in  these  schools.  These  are  em- 
ployed afterward  for  the  most  part  in  making 
patterns.  So  the  school  may  be  looked  upon  as  a 
director  of  the  whole  industry. 

6.    Compulsory  Continuation  Schools  for  Girls. 

The  necessity  for  making  the  school  attendance 
compulsory  is  based,  according  to  Behrendt,  on 
the  following  circumstance: 

It  has  been  shown  that  in  some  localities  where 
compulsory  attendance  upon  commercial  schools  has 
been  established  in  the  case  of  boys  by  local  ordi- 
nance, certain  employers  attempt  to  substitute  for  male 
help,  female  workers,  because  the  latter  are  not  sub- 
ject to  the  onerous  requirement  of  attending  school.1 

Practically  the  same  reports  are  made  by  the 
Kaufmannischer  Verband  fur  weibliche  Angestellte.1 
The  Deutscher  Verband  kaufmannischer  Vereine 
to  which  more  than  one  hundred  commercial 
clubs  of  Germany  belong,  made  the  following 
declaration  in  1902  at  one  of  the  sessions  in 
Cassel: 

Inefficient  educational  preparation  for  a  commer- 
cial pursuit  and  the  want  of  practical  training  are  the 
main  reasons  why  the  wages  for  girls  taking  commer- 
cial positions  are  so  low.    In  the  interest  of  the  female, 

1  Behrent,  Griindung,  Einrichtung,  und  Verwaltung  von  obliga- 
tor ischen  kaufmdnnischen  Fortbildungsschulen,  1905,  No.  3,  p.  7. 

1  Compare  Schriften  des  kaufmdnnischen  Verbandes  fur  weib- 
liche Angestellte,  1905,  No.  3,  p.  7. 


108    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

as  well  as  in  that  of  the  male  helpers,  attendance  upon 
a  commercial  continuation  school  should  be  made 
compulsory. s 

The  educational  requirements  for  entrance  upon 
commercial  work  should  be  the  same  in  the  case 
of  both  sexes.  Such  a  provision  will  lead  to  the 
full  recognition  of  the  worth  of  woman's  work. 
She  will  then  no  longer  be  looked  upon  as  a  de- 
pressor of  wages.  .  .  .  Through  the  establish- 
ment of  the  compulsory  continuation  school  for 
girls  a  stride  will  have  been  taken  toward  the 
solution  of  the  whole  question,  "Women  in 
Industry."  2 

German  commerce  could  not  do  without  the 
work  of  women.  At  the  present  day  it  is  no  longer 
a  question  for  debate  whether  woman's  work  is  to 
have  just  consideration,  whether  it  is  to  be  toler- 
ated or  not,  whether  woman  is  to  be  permitted  to 
become  a  mechanical  operative,  or  whether  she  is 
to  be  trained  to  become  an  intelligent  companion 
worker  who  knows  how  to  put  her  activities  in 
right  relations  with  the  whole  economic  life. 

Germany  is  called  upon  to  keep  herself  capable 
of  competition  in  all  fields  through  high-grade  work. 
Serious  results  must  necessarily  follow  if  Germany 
should  neglect  to  prepare  her  120,000  women 
helpers,  who  constitute  nearly  one-quarter  of  her 

1  Schriften  des  kaufmdnnischen  Verbandes  fur  weibliche  Ange- 
stellte,  p.  9. 

2  Agnes  Herrmann,  Der  Stand  des  kaufmdnnischen  Unterrichts- 
wesenfiir  weibliche  Angestellte,  1905,  pp.  84  and  87. 


Schools  for  Girls  109 

workers,  to  meet  the  responsibilities  which  life 
places  upon  them.1 

The  typical  demand  received  by  the  Kauf- 
mannischer  Verband  filr  weibliche  Angestellte  is  for 
a  young  woman  who  has  had  a  good  theoretical 
training.  Wholly  untrained,  so-called  apprentice 
girls  are  rarely  wanted  nowadays. 2 

It  is  also  argued  that  compulsory  attendance 
will  better  the  moral  conditions,  a  contention 
which  seems  quite  reasonable.  Much  is  also  said 
as  to  the  increased  culture  and  independence  that 
would  result  through  a  further  extension  of  the 
compulsory  continuation  schools. 

Much  discussion  takes  place  about  the  harmful 
results  of  the  "Pressen,  "3  but  about  the  only 
remedy  for  this  alleged  evil  would  be  obligatory 
attendance.  We  have  already  shown  that  diurnal 
instruction  for  boys  did  not  succeed  well  as  long 
as  the  schools  were  voluntary.  The  girls'  schools 
are  experiencing  a  similar  difficulty. 

The  compulsory  attendance  idea  is  slowly 
gaining  ground.  One  finds  that  the  leading  school 
men  and  women  are  practically  a  unit  in  believing 
that  like  opportunities  should  be  afforded  girls  as 
well  as  boys.  But  the  masses  are  not  convinced  as 
yet.    The  movement  is  also  opposed  vigorously  by 

1  In  the  year  1907,  as  we  have  noted  before,  there  were  already 
173,611  women  employed  in  commerce  alone.     (See  page  102.) 

2  Zeitschrift  fur  das  kaufmannische  Unterrichtswesen,  July,  1907, 
p.  117. 

3  Commercial  schools  that  are  purely  financial  enterprises, 


no    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

many  large  corporations,  apparently  on  the  ground 
that  the  taxes  will  be  too  high,  but,  in  reality, 
these  corporations  only  desire  to  practice  a  kind 
of  exploitation  of  the  youth,  regardless  of  social 
and  moral  consequences. 

Taken  all  in  all,  the  whole  school  development 
for  girls  promises  a  repetition  of  the  battles  that 
marked  the  history  of  the  growth  of  the  boys' 
schools.  Girls'  schools  are  a  whole  generation 
behind  the  boys'  schools,  but  are  gradually  passing 
through  the  same  stages  through  which  the  latter 
have  progressed. 

Traveling  from  city  to  city  with  a  view  to  study- 
ing the  school  situation,  one  finds  that  girls  are 
not  debarred  from  continuation  schools  because  of 
inability  to  pay  the  tuition  (provided  there  is  a 
school  in  the  town  at  all),  as  tuition  is  quite  gener- 
ally remitted  when  pupils  are  unable  to  pay.  The 
chief  difficulties  that  girls  encounter,  in  addition  to 
those  already  mentioned,  are  these : 

In  the  first  place,  the  employer  will  not  let  them 
have  the  time,  and  in  the  second  place,  parents  do  not 
realize  the  necessity  of  giving  girls  an  opportunity  for 
further  study.  The  first  objection  is  based  on  selfish- 
ness, and  the  second  on  ignorance.  In  order  to  help 
girls  conquer  these  difficulties,  laws  must  be  passed 
bringing  the  girls  into  the  schoolroom,  as  has  been 
done  to  such  a  large  extent  in  the  case  of  boys. 

7.  Co-Education.  In  1907,  co-education  ex- 
isted in  eleven  commercial  schools,  which  were 


Schools  for  Girls  m 

supported  by  the  city  or  by  Chambers  of  Com- 
merce, and  in  twenty-one  continuation  schools, 
which  were  also  maintained  in  part  by  the  muni- 
cipality or  Chamber  of  Commerce. 

Frau  Wascher  of  Cassel  made  a  careful  study  of 
the  results  of  co-education  in  continuation,  trade, 
and  commercial  schools.  A  portion  of  her  report 
follows: 

To  the  question,  "For  what  reason  was  co-education 
introduced?"  most  of  the  answers  stated  that  "econ- 
omy" was  the  chief  consideration,  or  that  it  was  the 
only  means  by  which  such  a  course  of  instruction  could 
possibly  be  secured  for  the  girls.  In  Mannheim  the 
experiment  was  made  at  the  instigation  of  the  city 
government;  in  Freiburg,  because  beneficial  results 
were  expected  in  matters  of  industry  and  conduct,  a 
result  which  was  really  achieved. 

To  the  second  question,  "Is  the  unequal  prepara- 
tion of  boys,  on  the  one  hand,  and  girls,  on  the  other, 
a  hindrance  to  instructing  the  two  sexes  together?" 
the  answer  was  universally  in  the  negative,  Mann- 
heim was  an  exception,  for  there  the  difference  in 
modern  language  training  favored  boys.  The  girls 
came  from  the  public  school,  the  boys  from  the  Real- 
schule.  Moreover,  the  difference  in  preparation 
among  the  boys  themselves  was  pointed  out  as  a 
problem  that  was  equally  in  need  of  attention. 

To  the  third  question,  "What  experience  have  you 
had  with  reference  to  the  ability  of  the  two  sexes  in 
mastering  the  material  offered  for  instruction?"  the 
answers  were  so  widely  divergent  that  it  was  evident 
that  not  the  sex,  but  the  individual,  was  the  deciding 


ii2    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

factor.  Especially  was  the  industry  of  the  girls 
praised.  An  exact  comparison  is  not  possible  here, 
because  in  so  many  cases  the  attendance  of  the  girls 
was  voluntary,  and  that  of  the  boys  compulsory. 

A  fourth  question  relates  to  the  influence  of  co- 
education on  (a)  character  building;  (b)  morals;  (c) 
ambition  to  learn,  and  (d)  discipline.  The  answers, 
with  one  exception,  are  favorable  throughout. 

To  the  question,  "Are  men  or  women  to  be  pre- 
ferred as  teachers  for  the  mixed  classes?"  there  is  no 
unanimous  agreement  favoring  men.  These  are  some 
of  the  answers:  "Up  to  the  present  time  men  only 
have  been  available,  hence  we  have  no  opportunity 
to  make  a  comparison."  "Typewriting  was  taught 
by  a  woman,  and  no  complaints  were  made."  "It 
depends  upon  the  personality;  in  general,  probably 
men  are  to  be  preferred. ' ' 

Also  to  the  question,  "What  results  have  been 
noted  when  co-education  did  not  begin  in  youth?" 
nothing  disadvantageous  was  brought  to  light. 

To  another  question,  "Do  you  recommend  edu- 
cating the  sexes  together,  even  when  conditions  make 
a  division  possible?"  various  individuals  answer  that 
in  such  cases  they  would  separate  the  sexes.  Others, 
on  the  contrary,  replied  that  for  voluntary  attendance 
they  would  recommend  co-education,  but  in  the  case 
of  compulsory  attendance  they  would  prefer  to  teach 
the  sexes  separately. 

To  the  next  question,  "Are  your  teachers  men  or 
women?"  the  answers  show  that  nearly  all  full-  and 
part-time  teachers  are  men,  with  the  exception  of  a 
language  teacher,  a  commercial  teacher,  and  three 
part-time  teachers  in  science. 

To  the  last  question,   "What  previous  schooling 


Schools  for  Girls  113 

have  the  pupils  had?"  the  answers  show  that  the  con- 
tinuation schools  are  recruited  from  all  schools, — 
public  schools,  middle  schools,  and  higher  girls' 
schools. 

If  one  summarizes  the  results  of  experiences 
thus  far  attained,  we  find,  in  the  first  place,  that 
co-education  with  only  one  exception  has  shown 
no  disadvantages;  and  in  the  second  place,  that 
no  special  difficulties  have  presented  themselves 
because  of  difference  in  education,  or  because  of 
differences  in  ability  to  master  the  material  to  be 
learned. 

From  the  above  report  we  see  that  the  results 
were  not  unfavorable  in  the  limited  extent  to 
which  co-education  has  been  tried  in  Germany. 
The  facts  brought  out  in  Frau  Wascher's  report 
have  furthermore  been  substantiated  by  other 
investigators  who  studied  individual  schools  rather 
than  the  whole  list. * 

In  the  Woche,  No.  18,  May,  1909,  is  an  article 
by  Wychgram  concerning  co-education.  The 
"Oberschulrat"  reporting  on  the  admittance  of 
girls  as  guest  students  to  the  boys'  classes  states: 

The  results  in  general  are  quite  good.  The  ability 
of  the  girls  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  courses  was 
proven.    In  many  cases,  indeed,  greater  industry  and 

1  Agnes  Herrmann,  Der  Stand  des  kaufmdnnischen  Unterrichts- 
wesenfiir  weibliche  Angestellte,  1905,  p.  81. 

Also,  Eva  von  Roy,  Berichte  des  deutschen  Verbandes  fur  das 
kaufmdnnische  Unterrichtswesens,  p.  55. 
8 


ii4    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

a  more  lively  interest  on  the  part  of  the  girls  was  noted; 
also  their  presence  seems  to  have  had  a  stimulating 
effect  on  the  boys.  The  greater  punctuality,  love  of 
order,  and  deeper  conscientiousness  on  the  part  of  the 
girls  had  a  favorable  influence  on  the  conduct  of  the 
boys. 

The  growth  of  co-education  will  be  slow  in  Ger- 
many, because  prejudice  against  it  is  very  deep 
indeed.  Before  it  can  gain  any  great  headway, 
the  whole  status  of  women  will  have  to  rise,  and 
such  a  rise  to  become  practicable  involves  a  change 
in  national  ideals.  Despite  all  this,  financial 
necessity  will  compel  the  introduction  of  co-educa- 
tion in  smaller  cities  where  there  are  only  enough 
members  of  both  sexes  combined  to  constitute  one 
class.  The  more  completely  the  schools  adopt 
compulsory  attendance,  the  stronger  will  become 
this  force  in  its  operation.  The  report  cited  shows 
that  in  several  instances  this  was  the  case. 

Other  conditions  will  arise  which  may  very 
possibly  make  it  necessary  to  teach  boys  and  girls 
jointly.  We  have  noted  the  rapid  increase  in  the 
number  of  women  entering  the  business  world.1 
They  are  away  from  home  more  now  than  ever 
before ;  hence  there  is  much  greater  need  that  they 
be  able  to  protect  themselves  against  men.  The 
capacity  for  so  protecting  themselves,  can  be  most 
readily  acquired  through  co-education. 

xEva  von  Roy,  Kaufmdnnisches  Unterrichtswesen  fur  weib- 
liche  Angestellte.  Bericht  des  deutschen  Verbandes  fur  das  kauf- 
mdnnische  Unterrichtswesen,  p.  52,  53. 


Schools  for  Girls  115 

That  immorality  in  German  cities  is  increasing 
is  conceded.  One  reads  and  hears  much  about  the 
bashfulness  and  sensitiveness  of  German  girls  who 
go  into  the  offices  and  stores,  and  it  is  well  known 
that  a  large  percentage  of  the  young  men  treat 
the  girls  with  a  certain  air  of  haughtiness.  The 
man  assumes  a  condescending  attitude  toward  the 
office  girl,  especially  when  he  occupies  a  higher 
position,  whereas  the  situation  demands  instead 
true  comradeship  and  co-operation.  Such  conduct 
can  be  witnessed  in  the  daily  life  of  Germany. 
For  this  condition  of  things  co-education  offers  one 
of  the  best  solutions,  but  it  will  have  to  be  a  differ- 
ent kind  of  co-education  from  that  at  present 
obtaining. 

Some  advocate  the  confining  of  co-education  to 
the  continuation  schools.  But  to  bring  boys  and 
girls  together  for  the  first  time  after  their  four- 
teenth year  and  then  only  in  the  classroom  for 
periods  totaling  six  or  eight  hours  per  week — an 
arrangement  that  affords  the  two  sexes  no  chance 
to  play  together  under  any  kind  of  supervision, — 
is  not  likely  to  do  much  toward  bringing  about  the 
high  aim  so  much  desired.  Then  again  what  is 
called  co-education  in  Germany  is  in  reality  only  a 
mixed  class,  and  differs  widely  from  co-education 
in  the  United  States. 

In  order  to  get  the  highest  results  from  co- 
education, the  German  school  discipline  would,  as 
a  first  step,  have  to  become  more  democratic. 
There  would  have  to  be  fewer  rules  and  more  self- 


n6    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

government.  Even  in  the  case  of  the  mixed 
schools  (so-called  co-education),  it  is  universally 
the  rule  to  have  the  boys  and  girls  come  in  and  go 
out  at  separate  doors;  when  only  one  door  is 
provided,  one  sex  goes  out  in  toto  before  the  other 
is  permitted  to  leave  the  room.  The  seating  is 
arranged  so  that  one  sex  is  in  the  front  part  of  the 
room  and  the  other  in  the  rear,  with  an  empty 
row  of  seats  between  whenever  possible.  On  the 
playground  the  sexes  are  again  separated.  In 
fact,  the  idea  that  these  little  people  should  be 
taught  by  example  how  to  deal  with  one  another 
plays  a  small  part  in  the  curriculum.  Instead  of 
doing  everything  to  minimize  the  consciousness 
that  there  are  in  the  room  two  sexes,  the  whole 
arrangement  and  procedure  from  the  beginning  of 
the  school  to  its  close  constantly  keeps  it  alive.  No 
wonder  grave  results  are  feared  when  the  age  of 
adolescence  is  reached ! 

If  at  each  intermission  the  teacher  would  play 
some  little  game  with  the  boys  and  girls,  instead 
of  standing  aloof  in  characteristic  manner,  a 
healthy  moral  growth  and  independence  for  both 
sexes  would  at  once  begin.  The  game  brings  up 
many  little  discussions  of  right  and  wrong,  and 
offers  opportunities  to  show  fair  play,  honesty, 
etc.  By  taking  a  part  in  their  play,  the  teacher 
has  a  great  chance  to  build  character,  to  show  the 
boys  how  to  be  truly  gallant  to  the  little  girls,  and 
at  the  same  time  to  inculcate  in  the  girls  by  actual 
example  a  recognition  of  the  way  they  should  be 


Schools  for  Girls  1 1 7 

treated  by  the  boys.  Instead  of  growing  apart, 
the  two  sexes  would  learn  to  have  confidence  in 
one  another,  a  regard  for  the  rights  of  others,  and 
would  come  to  see  the  true  way  to  enjoy  all  that 
is  best  and  noblest  in  comradeship.  Children 
thus  trained  are  fully  prepared  for  co-education  in 
the  continuation  schools  without  occasioning  those 
fears  about  morality  regarding  which  one  hears  so 
much. 

To  be  sure,  co-education  could  not  be  carried  out 
completely  in  continuation  schools,  because  the 
trades  bring  about  a  division.  But  the  idea  could 
be  firmly  established  that  it  was  the  vocation  and 
not  the  sex  that  made  the  class  division.  That 
the  German  school  system  will  have  to  do  more 
than  it  now  does  for  the  strengthening  of  morals  is 
pretty  clear.  The  conditions  prevailing  are  not 
normal,  and  especially  is  this  true  of  the  cities. 

Co-education  is  one  of  the  greatest  elements  of 
strength  in  the  American  school  system.  It  is 
sometimes  reported  that  co-education  is  failing  in 
the  United  States,  but  the  reports  of  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Education  show  a  rapid  increase  in  co- 
educational schools  from  1870  up  to  the  present 
date.  It  is  true,  however,  that  in  some  secondary 
schools  and  colleges,  there  is  serious  discussion 
as  to  the  advisability  of  co-education.  Such  dis- 
cussion has,  however,  always  obtained  and  presents 
no  anomaly.  There  are  certain  classes  of  schools 
in  which  the  institution  of  co-education  would  be  a 
dangerous  policy,  and  in  some  schools  where  co- 


n8    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

education  is  in  force  it  occasions  more  or  less 
trouble.  In  schools  catering  to  pupils  who  have 
been  indulged  all  their  life,  where  smoking  and 
drinking  is  quite  general  among  students  and 
faculty,  co-education  begins  to  break  down.  It  is 
very  interesting  to  note  that  in  the  schools  of  the 
United  States  having  co-education,  and  inciden- 
tally, maintaining  on  the  part  of  both  students  and 
faculty  a  strong  sentiment  against  tobacco  and 
drink  the  best  standard  of  morals  prevails.  Ger- 
many could  profit  too  by  observing  the  beneficent 
results  of  this  concomitant  of  co-education. 


VI 

TRADE  SCHOOLS 

i .  Characteristics  and  Distribution  of  this  Type 
of  School.  The  trade  schools,  distinct  from  the 
industrial  continuation  school  on  the  one  hand  and 
the  technical  high  school  on  the  other,  may  be 
divided  into  two  general  types.  The  higher  of 
these  is  called  the  middle  trade  school,  Mittlere 
Fachschule,  established  for  the  purpose  of  training 
those  foremen  of  the  larger  manufacturing  plants 
and  the  employers  and  higher  officials  of  the  smaller 
factories  who  may  wish  to  understand  and  to 
pursue  the  latest  advances  in  technique  inde- 
pendently. The  entrance  requirements  for  a 
school  of  this  class  correspond  to  those  of  the  one- 
year  voluntary  military  service  of  the  Empire. 
This  is  equivalent  to  the  completion  of  the  sixth 
year's  work  in  a  Gymnasien  or  Realschule.  Thus, 
including  the  three  years,  from  the  ages  six  to 
nine,  spent  at  the  preparatory  school,  pupils  have 
about  nine  years  of  schooling  before  being  en- 
rolled in  a  middle  trade  school.  In  addition,  it  is 
usual  to  require  one  or  two  years  of  practical 
experience  in  a  trade.    The  advancement  from  one 

119 


120    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

class  to  the  next  can  only  take  place  after  the  work 
of  the  preceding  class  has  been  done  satisfactorily. 
The  course  requires  the  full  time  of  the  pupil  for 
two  or  three  years.  The  completion  of  the  whole 
course  prepares  for  entrance  upon  a  high  school, 
Hochschule,  which  is  equivalent  in  rank  to  a 
University. 

The  lower  of  these  two  types  is  called  the  lower 
trade  school,  Die  Niedere  Fachschule,  and  its  pur- 
pose is  to  prepare  work-masters  of  large  factories 
and  independent  managers  of  smaller  concerns. 
The  conditions  of  admittance  are:  first,  a  good 
public  school  education;  second,  special  aptness 
in  arithmetic  and  drawing;  and  third,  practical 
experience  and  such  training  as  is  offered  in  the 
industrial  continuation  school. 

The  instruction  is  sometimes  practical,  some- 
times theoretical.  The  principles  of  mathematics, 
natural  science,  and  the  technology  of  the  special 
branch  under  consideration,  with  special  stress 
upon  technical  drawing,  are  always  kept  in  the 
foreground.  In  details,  however,  the  curricula 
differ  widely.  These  are  conditional  on  the  dura- 
tion of  the  school  term,  which  is  partly  taken  in  the 
form  of  practical  work,  and  partly  on  the  goals  to 
be  attained,  which  vary  widely  according  to  the 
different  degrees  of  efficiency  required.  Where- 
as a  part  of  the  lower  trade  schools  give  a  two- 
year  course,  completion  of  which  prepares  for 
the  middle  trade  schools,  others  have  no  other 
pretension  than  to  give  a  thorough  training  for 


Trade  Schools  121 

an   industrial   worker   (e.  g.f  many  textile  trade 
schools).1 

The  tables  shown  on  the  following  page  give  a 
survey  of  the  industrial  trade  schools  in  Germany  :2 

2.  Attendance  and  Growth  in  the  Leading 
States,  (a)  In  Prussia.  (1)  Schools  for  Building 
Trades.  The  twenty -five  schools  for  building  trades 
had  in  1910  an  enrollment  of  5650  students.  In 
1 89 1,  there  were  ten  schools;  the  subsequent 
growth  therefore  shows  an  increase  of  about  150% 
in  nine  years.  In  1893,  2050  applications  for  en- 
rollment were  rejected  because  the  schools  were 
crowded.  In  1904,  381  applications  were  rejected 
for  the  same  reason.3 

The  expenses  for  the  year  1908  were  2,480,693 
Marks.  The  expenses  of  the  State,  after  deducting 
the  income  of  the  institution,  amounted  to  1,541,- 
758  Marks,  and  the  subsidy  of  the  municipalities 
amounted  to  313,060  Marks.4  These  figures  show 
the  following  increase  since  1891 : 

For  the  State 500% 

"       "  municipality 375% 

On  account  of  tuition 200% 

(2)  Trade  Schools  for  Metal  Workers.  In  1891, 
there  were  nine,  of  which  four  were  private.     In 

1  Lexis,  Das  techniscke  Unterrichtswesen,  iv.,  p.  8. 

2  Ibid.,  p.  30. 

3  Verwaltungsbericht  des  Konigl.  Preuss.  Landesgewerbeamtes, 
1905,  p.  297. 

A  Statistisches  Jahrbuch  fur  den  Preuss.  Staat,  p.  190. 


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122 


Trade  Schools  123 

1906,  the  number  had  reached  twenty-two,  the 
total  expenses  of  which  amounted  to  1,508,848 

Marks. * 

Of  this  sum  the  State  paid 989,51 1  Mks. 

"     "       "       "    city  paid 233,830      " 

"     "       "       "   income  of  the  school  was. .. .    285,447      " 

1,508,788s    " 

Since  1891,  the  State's  subsidy  has  increased 
about  800  per  cent.,  and  that  of  the  cities  about 
300  per  cent.  The  number  of  students  in  1906 
exceeded  3000,  making  an  increase  of  about  300 
per  cent,  since  1891. 

(3)  Pottery  Schools  and  Art  Industrial  Schools.* 
According  to  the  classification  of  the  Kgl.  Preuss. 
Landesgewerbeamt,  these  schools  may  be  grouped, 
from  the  viewpoint  of  the  financial  support  they 
receive,  into  three  classes: 

First,  those  supported  by  the  State  alone : 

In  1907,  there  were  six  of  this  type,  the  total 
expense  of  which  amounted  to  342,545  Marks. 
Of  this  amount  the  State  paid  263,322  Marks. 
This  contribution  represents  an  increase  of  no 
per  cent,  in  the  amount  of  the  State's  appropria- 

1  Verwaltungsbericht   des   Konigl.  Preuss.   Landesgewerbeamtes, 

1907,  PP-  305,  306,  307. 

2  The  difference  of  50  Marks  seems  to  be  a  misprint  in  the 
report  of  the  "Kgl.  hoh.  Maschinenbauschule "  of  Einbeck. 

3  Verwaltungsbericht  des  Konigl.  Preuss.  Landesgewerbeamtes, 
1905  and  1907.  Also,  Lexis,  Dermittlere  und  niedere  Fachunter- 
richt,  p.  57. 


124    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

tion.  The  number  of  pupils  enrolled  in  the  winter 
of  1906-07  was  840,  and  683  in  the  summer  of  1907. 
The  attendance  in  the  last  four  years  has  some- 
what declined. 

Second,  those  supported  by  the  State  and  muni- 
cipalities : 

Ten  schools  had  in  the  year  1907  a  total  expense 
of  999,182  Marks.  Of  this  the  State  paid  454,318 
Marks.  These  sums  show  an  increase  of  165  per 
cent,  and  120  per  cent,  respectively  over  the 
amount  paid  ten  years  before.  The  number  of 
students  reached  approximately  9000,  which  num- 
ber had  been  about  constant  for  the  five  years 
previous. 

Third,  those  to  which  the  State  grants  merely 
a  subsidy: 

Seventeen  such  institutions  had  in  1907  an 
expense  of  1,415,028  Marks.  Of  this  sum  the  State 
paid  as  subsidy  502,100  Marks. 

In  1897,  there  were  only  three  such  institutions, 
the  expense  of  which  amounted  to  256,658  Marks. 
Of  this  total  the  State's  subsidy  amounted  to  63,- 
940  Marks.  These  amounts  represent  an  increase 
respectively  of  450  per  cent,  and  680  per  cent, 
since  1897. 

(4)  Trade  Schools  for  the  Textile  Industry,  (a) 
Higher  Trade  Schools  for  Textile  Industry.  Accord- 
ing to  the  report  of  the  Landesgewerbeamt  there 
were  in  1905  seven  such  schools.  Their  own  in- 
come amounted  to  213,706  Marks,  of  which  142,204 
was  expended  for  tuition,  and  the  remaining  69,800 


Trade  Schools  125 

Marks  represented  proceeds  from  the  sale  of  the 
products  of  the  schools. 

The  State's  subsidy  amounted  to  304,765  Marks, 
and  the  income  from  other  funds  reached  175,230 
Marks.  This  shows  an  increase  respectively  of 
250  per  cent,  and  280  per  cent,  since  the  year  1891. 

The  number  of  pupils  was : 

in  1891 884 

in  1903 1231 

in  1905 1062 

(b)  The  Lower  Trade  Schools  for  the  Textile 
Industry.  In  1905,  there  were  six1  such  schools. 
The  total  income  was  12,078  Marks,  of  which 
7245  was  derived  from  tuition  fees  and  4300  from 
the  proceeds  of  the  products  made  by  the  schools. 

The  subsidy  from  the  State's  funds  amounted 
to  68,232  Marks,  and  out  of  other  funds  to  31,802 
Marks.  Both  sums  were  respectively  3.6  and  4.7 
times  as  large  in  1905  as  they  were  in  1891.  The 
number  of  pupils  was : 

in  1891 177 

in  1903 243 

in  1905 273 

(b)  In  Saxony.  The  following  tables  show  the 
growth  of  the  textile,  lace  and  trimming,  and 
building  trade  schools.2 

1  There  were  eight  originally,  but  two  were  transformed  into 
schools  for  domestic  science. 

2  Filnfter  Bericht  uber  die  gesamten  Unterrichts  und  Erziehung- 
sanstalten  im  Konigreich  Sachsen,  p.  83. 


126    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

1884  1904 

Number  of  weaving  schools 25  21 

No.  of  schools  for  lace  and  trimming 2  4 

No.  of  weaving  and  lace  and  trimming  schools 1  1 

28  26 


1884  1904 

Number  of  pupils 1701  2543 

In  the  day  schools 220  436 

In  the  night  schools 1481  2107 

From  Saxony 1599  2442 

From  other  German  States 62  37 

From  foreign  countries 40  64 


Total  expense: 


1884 

Marks. 
89,400 


1904 

Marks. 
207,120 — 112% 


Total  income: 

1.  Tuition 30,023  42,473—  41% 

2.  Contributions  of  municipality.. .  .11,500  47,754 — 315% 

3.  Contributions  of  those  interested.  12,500  24,410 —  95% 

4.  Contributions  of  State 24,400  75»635_ 2I0% 


Other  industrial  trade  schools 


Year 

No.  of  Schools 

No,  of  Pupils 

Expense 

1884 
1889 
1894 
1899 
1904 

20 
36 
64 
80 
98 

1325 
2553 
4052 
5700 
7976 

118,497  Marks 

387,378      " 
475,292      " 

Trade  Schools 

Schools  for  building  trades : 

127 

Year 

No.  of  Schools 

No.  of  Pupils 

1890 

1904 

Increase 

5 
12 

140% 

603 

1342  o, 

123% 

Schools  for  machinists: 

Year 

No.  of  Schools 

No.  of  Pupils 

1890 
1904 

Increase 

2 

7 
250% 

1437 
3334^ 
130% 

3.     Growth  as  Compared  with  other  Schools. 

The  trade  schools  of  the  chief  industries  of  Prussia 
and  of  Saxony  show  a  growth  that  is  quite  charac- 
teristic for  all  Germany. 

The  development  in  these  fields  is  astonishingly 
great,  and  it  seems  even  more  remarkable  when 
one  contrasts  the  fact  that  in  certain  of  the  learned 
professions  there  is  a  marked  decline  in  the  number 
of  students  enrolled.1 

During  the  last  ten  or  fifteen  years,  State  and 
municipality   have   increased   their   subsidies   by 


1  The  number  of  students  of  theology  has  decreased  by  one- 
half  in  the  period  from  1890  to  1905,  and  the  number  preparing 
for  the  practice  of  medicine  by  approximately  one-fourth  in  the 
same  period.  On  the  other  hand,  the  number  of  law  students  has 
doubled  in  the  same  time. 


128    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

several  hundred  per  cent.  The  total  income 
derived  from  tuition  fees1  has  increased  in  about 
the  same  proportion  as  has  the  number  of  students. 

4.  Opposition  to  the  Further  Extension  of  these 
Schools.  The  rapid  increase  in  the  number  of 
workmen  who  have  attended  trade  schools  has 
called  forth  the  strongest  and  bitterest  opposition 
on  the  part  of  technical  industrial  officials.  In 
1904,  this  opposition  crystallized  itself  into  an 
organization  known  as  Bund  der  technisch-indus- 
triellen  Beamten,  which  numbered  about  15,000 
members.  The  organization  hopes  to  secure  better 
conditions  for  its  entire  membership. 

A  number  of  projects  are  set  as  goals  to  be 
attained,  of  which  the  following  have  the  most 
interest  for  us: 

The  organization  attempts  to  influence  the 
legislative  bodies  of  both  State  and  municipality  so 
that  for  the  present  no  new  trade  schools  will  be 
established,  and  that  the  subsidies  of  those  already 
established  will  not  be  increased. 

Furthermore,  it  attempts  to  bring  about  a 
strict  supervision  of  all  private  trade  schools  to  the 
end  that  the  number  of  pupils  may  be  reduced. 

1  The  rates  of  tuition  vary  greatly.  In  the  sixteen  higher  textile 
schools  of  Germany  the  charge  for  tuition  is  between  30  and  200 
Marks  yearly  for  German  students.  The  average  is  about 
125  Marks  yearly.  For  foreign  students,  it  varies  from  250 
to  1060  Marks  yearly.  The  average  is  600  Marks  yearly. 
(Foreigners  are  not  permitted  to  enroll  in  some  of  the  German 
schools.) 


Trade  Schools  129 

The  organization  strives  to  disseminate  the  in- 
formation that  there  exists  already  a  proletariat 
among  the  technical  officials,  and  that  the  further 
fostering  of  trade  schools  can  only  lead  to  a  flooding 
of  the  market  with  skilled  workmen,  a  condition 
of  things  which  in  turn  must  necessarily  lead  to  a 
still  greater  depression  of  wages. 


VII 

INTERNAL    ORGANIZATION 

i.    School  Buildings  and  Teaching  Apparatus. 

The  provision  for  suitable  buildings  is  perhaps  the 
most  neglected  part  of  the  whole  school  organiza- 
tion. In  the  villages  the  public  school  buildings 
are  about  the  only  ones  available,  and  the  same 
limitation  of  accommodations  obtains,  to  a  very- 
considerable  extent,  also  in  the  larger  cities.  As 
a  matter  of  course,  the  seating  and  all  other 
conveniences  in  such  buildings  are  intended  for 
children  under  fourteen  years,  and  are  wholly 
inadequate  for  pupils  of  the  age  of  those  attending 
the  continuation  schools.  In  larger  cities,  frequent- 
ly some  building  is  used  which  was  originally  con- 
structed for  an  entirely  different  purpose.  Such 
building  is  fitted  up  as  well  as  possible  to  meet  the 
emergency  of  the  rapid  growth  of  the  continuation 
school  system.  The  usual  result  is  that  the  rooms 
are  too  small  for  the  size  of  the  class,  and  particu- 
larly unsuitable  for  proper  ventilation,  which  is  a 
thing  much  neglected  even  when  the  conditions 
would  permit  an  improvement. 

The  schools  seem  fairly  well  supplied  with  ap- 
130 


Internal  Organization  131 

paratus,  but  under  crowded  conditions  the  appa- 
ratus cannot  be  spread  out  properly  for  effective 
and  convenient  use.  Schools  are  found  in  which 
one  little  room  is  stacked  full  of  models,  samples, 
instruments,  and  tools  of  all  kinds,  which,  through 
lack  of  sufficient  space,  lose  much  of  their  possible 
usefulness  to  the  school,  and  the  charm  of  display 
which  such  things  offer  the  pupil  when  constantly 
in  view.  However,  every  indication  points  to  a 
great  improvement  in  the  near  future. 

By  those  connected  with  nearly  every  institution 
visited  the  writer  was  told,  "  You  have  come  to  us 
at  a  critical  time.  We  are  just  in  the  midst  of  a 
reorganization,  and  a  new  building  is  now  being 
planned  or  in  process  of  construction,"  etc.  These 
assertions  were  truthful,  too.  Since  the  instruc- 
tion is  increasingly  being  conducted  in  the  day- 
time, special  buildings  are  necessary. 

Munich  is  in  this  particular,  as  well  as  in  many 
others,  one  of  the  most  advanced  cities.  There 
the  buildings  more  recently  constructed  are  really 
palaces.  The  equipment  and  the  apparatus  for 
teaching  are  complete  in  every  way.  Expense 
has  not  been  spared  nor  exceptionally  high  skill 
been  lacking  to  make  everything  correspond  to 
the  highest  ideals  of  what  an  industrial  school 
should  afford. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  example  set 
by  Munich  is  the  topic  of  discussion  all  over  Ger- 
many. School  authorities  in  other  cities  are  do- 
ing their  best  to  work  up  popular  sentiment  in 


132    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

favor  of  the  school  workshop.  That  all  eyes  are 
turned  to  Munich  at  present  is  strongly  evinced 
by  the  fact  that  in  visiting  schools  in  other  cities, 
one  is  always  asked,  "Have  you  been  in  Munich? 
Oh,  that  you  must  see!" 

2.  Curriculum,  {a)  The  Sunday  School.  As 
we  have  already  stated,  the  Sunday  continuation 
school  is  a  lower  form  of  the  general  continuation 
school.  A  little  drill  in  arithmetic,  German,  and 
composition  is  imparted  by  the  public  school 
teacher,  but  the  most  important  subject  is  religion, 
which  is  given  by  the  clergy.  The  whole  course  is 
simply  a  repetition  of  some  of  the  work  of  the 
public  school.  Children  seem  to  have  no  especial 
love  for  this  work,  and  the  consensus  of  the  best 
opinion  is  that  very  little  good  is  accomplished. 
In  many  ways  one  may  say  that  it  represents  the 
last  stages  of  the  disappearing  clerical  influence 
in  the  public  schools. 

(b)  The  General  Continuation  School.  The  cur- 
riculum of  the  general  continuation  school  is 
generally  expected  to  be  more  utilitarian  than 
cultural.  The  hours  per  year  (80  to  240)  at  the 
disposal  of  the  school  are  devoted  to  such  subjects 
as  will  meet  the  local  conditions.  Arithmetic  and 
German,  reading,  lettering,  and  composition  al- 
ways find  a  place.  Drawing  is  rarely  omitted. 
Those  schools  having  the  maximum  number  of 
hours  add  to  the  curriculum  other  subjects  taught 
in  the  public  schools  or  subjects  beyond  the  public 


Internal  Organization  133 

school  curriculum.  The  authorities  are  guided 
in  their  selection  by  the  desire  to  meet  local 
conditions. 

Since  1891,  in  Baden,  instruction  in  household 
economics  may  be  instituted  for  girls. 

Wurttemberg  and  Bavaria  find  a  place  in  their 
curriculum  for  religion,  while  Hessen  especially 
provides  that  no  account  shall  be  taken  by  the 
teachers  of  any  religious  doctrine  whatever.  In 
Baden,  also,  religion  does  not  form  part  of  the 
curriculum.  In  Saxony,  its  adoption  is  left  to 
the  decision  of  the  school  board,  but  reports  show 
that  it  is  not  often  included. 

(c)  The  Industrial  and  Commercial  Continuation 
School.  The  occupation  of  the  pupil  is  the  central 
point  around  which  the  studies  group  themselves. 
Kerschensteiner  defined  the  goal  very  definitely 
a  decade  ago,  when  he  offered  the  suggestion  that 
the  whole  continuation  school  system,  wherever 
possible,  should  be  organized  on  the  principles 
of  practical  experience,  and  that  the  school  work- 
shop should  not  be  an  essential  element  merely, 
but  should  be  the  main  feature  of  the  organization. x 

Though  this  is  now  regarded  as  the  ultimate  aim 
of  all  industrial  continuation  schools,  the  financial 
sacrifice  is  so  great  that  its  complete  introduction 
must  take  place  slowly.  Recently,  the  Ministry 
of  Trade  and  Commerce  in  Prussia  declared  that 
for  financial  reasons  the  "  Kerschensteiner  system  " 
could  not  be  introduced  in  Prussia. 

1  Kerschensteiner,  Grundfragen  der  Schulorganisation. 


134    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

The  arrangement  of  the  subjects  in  the  cur- 
riculum, as  indicated  by  the  extract  that  follows, 
shows  how  widely  different  are  the  points  of  view. 

Either  the  occupation  is  considered  basic,  as  in  the 
widely  used  plan  of  the  industrial  schools  in  Heide 
in  Holstein,  which  takes  up  local  occupation  and  citi- 
zenship in  the  first  year,  citizenship  and  the  mathe- 
matics pertaining  to  the  trade  in  question  in  the  second 
year,  and  the  special  technique  belonging  to  the  handi- 
craft worker  in  the  third  year;  or  we  may  find  an 
arrangement  similar  to  the  one  obtaining  in  the  con- 
tinuation schools  in  Frankfurt-on-the-Main.  The 
topics  considered  in  the  first  year  are:  entrance  into 
vocational  life,  the  workshop,  the  proper  use  of  mate- 
rials; in  the  second  year,  uses  of  the  apparatus,  and 
the  duties  of  apprentices ;  in  the  third  year,  the  topics 
studied  are:  the  master  as  independent  business 
manager,  the  master  as  a  member  of  the  craft,  the 
master  as  head  of  the  family,  municipality,  and  citi- 
zen of  the  State.  Or  a  third  plan  may  be  adopted 
operative  in  the  continuation  schools  in  Halle.  In 
the  first  year,  those  subjects  are  treated  that  touch 
most  closely  the  life  of  the  apprentice.  The  topics 
are, — work,  choosing  an  occupation,  entrance  into  a 
continuation  school,  apprenticeship,  sick  insurance, 
the  attributes  of  an  apprentice,  the  workshop,  general 
information  about  material.  In  the  second  year,  the 
topics  embrace, — the  journeyman,  his  rights  and 
duties,  his  wages,  old  age  and  sick  insurance,  military 
duty,  accident  insurance,  the  employment  of  the 
journeyman.  In  the  third  year,  the  topics  studied 
comprise  the  master,  the  master  as  business  manager, 


Internal  Organization  135 

the  founding  and  the  routine  of  a  business,  the  laws 
regulating  the  trade  under  question,  insurance,  the 
master  as  merchant,  the  master  as  member  of  a  guild, 
and  finally  the  development  of  handicraft  in  Germany. * 

The  larger  the  city,  and  the  more  local  the  occu- 
pation, the  greater  may  be  the  specialization  in 
the  course  of  study.  It  is  remarkable  how  closely 
the  subjects  taught  deal  with  the  direct  work  of  the 
apprentice.  For  illustration,  there  are  forty  or 
more  different  types  of  arithmetic,  bookkeeping, 
and  drawing,  each  suited  to  a  particular  occupa- 
tion. The  skill  that  the  Germans  have  so  uni- 
formly shown  in  thus  applying  their  knowledge 
in  a  manner  so  practical  and  serviceable  to  the 
trades  has  won  the  constant  admiration  of  visitors. 
The  fact  that  one  finds  such  high  class  work  so 
widely  diffused  not  only  shows  that  long  years 
have  been  spent  on  the  system,  but  also  reveals 
the  true  strength  of  the  whole. 

Religion  has  been  introduced  into  some  of  these 
schools,  too;  for  example  in  Munich.  Its  further 
introduction  is  being  powerfully  opposed,  however, 
and  the  chances  of  its  extension  are  not  encouraging. 
This  is  one  of  the  great  conflicts  raging  in  Prussia 
now.  If  all  parties  had  agreed  to  give  a  special 
place  in  the  curriculum  to  religion,  the  continua- 
tion school  system  in  Prussia  would  be  much  farther 
along.  But  the  party  opposed  to  Church  rule  in 
these  schools  hopes  eventually  to  see  them  estab- 
lished without  religion  as  one  of  the  requirements, 

1  Siercks,  Das  deutsche  Fortbildungsschulwesen,  p.  130. 


136    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 


hence  the  contest  and  the  delay ;  the  moderns  have 
the  better  prospect  of  victory. 

Several  collateral  issues  receive  a  great  deal  of 
attention  in  some  schools.  More  and  more  stress 
is  being  put  on  the  so-called  training  for  citizen- 
ship. Knowledge  alone  will  not  suffice ;  hence  there 
is  a  gradual  change  to  what  in  a  narrower  sense 
might  be  called  child  welfare  work.  Among  these 
activities  are  libraries,  children's  savings  banks, 
apprenticeship  homes,  evening  entertainments, 
gymnasiums,  and  walking  tours.1  Some  schools 
send  all  their  pupils  to  the  theater  several  times 
each  year,  also  organize  clubs  which  meet  on 
Sunday  for  the  purpose  of  innocent  amusement 
and  entertainment.  The  percentage  of  the  whole 
body  that  offers  such  advantages  is  still  small, 
but  it  is  growing,  and  the  tendency  is  being  most 
enthusiastically  encouraged  by  some  of  the  leading 
principals  and  teachers. 

We  submit  several  plans  of  study  as  types  of 
those  now  in  vogue. 

The  following  represents  a  course  for  mixed 
trades  on  a  six  hour  per  week  basis : 


1st  year 

2d  year 

3d  year 

Trade  instruction 

1 
2 
2 

1 

2 

2 

1 

German 

1 

Arithmetic 

1 

Bookkeeping 

Drawing 

1 
2 

Total 

6 

6 

6 

1  Siercks,  Das  deutsche  Fortbildungsschulwesen,  p.  in. 


Internal  Organization 


137 


The  continuation  school  course  in  Munich  for  car- 
penters and  cabinet  makers  has  the  following  plan : 


HOURS    PER    WEEK 

Winter  Semester 

Summer 

Classes 
I   to   III 

Class     IV 

Classes  I 
to  III 

Religion 

I 

I 
I 

I 

6 
3 

2 
2 

I 

I 

6 
6 

! 

Arithmetic  and  bookkeeping 

(alternately) 

Reading  and  composition .  .  . 
Citizenship 

I 
I 
I 

Drawing : 

(a)  Carpenters 

(b)  Cabinet  makers 

Practical  information  about 

the  woods,  tools,  and  ma- 
chines used  in  connection 
with  the  trade 

(a)  Carpenters 

(b)  Cabinet  makers .... 

5 

Total 

(a)  Carpenters 

(b)  Cabinet  makers 

12 

9 

8 
8 

3 
9 

For  the  commercial  continuation  schools,  the 
following  is  a  common  type x : 


First  Year 

Second  Year 

Third  Year 

German,  including  correspon- 
dence  

3 
2 

I 

2 
2 
I 

I 

Commerce 

I 

Arithmetic 

2 

Bookkeeping 

2 

Geography 

_ 

Total 

6 

6 

6 

1  Verwaltungsbericht  des  Konigl.  Preuss.  Landesgewerbeamtes, 
1907,  P.  56. 


138    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

The  commercial  continuation  schools  of  Munich 
provide  for  the  following  apportionment  of  the 
hours  of  attendance : 


Religion 

Arithmetic 

Bookkeeping 

Banking  and  exchange 

Business  correspondence  and 

reading 

Commercial    geography    and 

the  study  of  materials 

Hygiene  and  citizenship 

Stenography 

Writing 

Total 


Prepara- 
tory 
Year 

First 
Year 

Second 
Year 

I 

! 

I 

2 

2 

I 

I 

3 

2 

I 

I 

I 

- 

I 

I 

7 

2 

2 
I 

8 

10 

10 

Third 
Year 


The  drawing  up  of  a  curriculum  for  a  girl's 
continuation  commercial  school  becomes  in  cer- 
tain particulars  a  difficult  task.  The  first  question 
is:  "Shall  girls  receive  exactly  the  same  train- 
ing that  is  afforded  boys,  or  shall  their  womanly 
characteristics  be  taken  into  consideration  through 
the  introduction  of  some  studies  in  domestic 
science?" 

Many  leaders  of  the  woman  suffrage  movement 
and  many  commercial  teachers  champion  most 
enthusiastically  the  doctrine  of  equal  training  for 
both  boys  and  girls.  They  claim  that  household 
studies  are  superfluous  for  the  girls  of  this  class, 
since  the  girls  have  learned  these  subjects  in  their 


Internal  Organization  139 

homes.  Hence  each  hour  devoted  to  domestic 
science  would  only  lessen  the  available  time  for 
commercial  instruction,  and  the  girls  would  receive 
secondary  positions  in  consequence  of  their  less 
competent  training. 

The  opponents  of  a  purely  industrial  training 
for  girls,  among  whom  are  many  important  per- 
sonalities, contradict  with  great  firmness  the  theory 
that  the  women  of  the  present  day  who  are  engaged 
as  commercial  employees  possess  sufficient  skill 
in  the  household  arts,  but  maintain  that,  on  the 
contrary,  these  are  girls  who  come  from  families 
in  which  the  mother  does  all  the  work  and  never 
instructs  the  daughters  in  domestic  pursuits. 

We  must  not  overlook  the  fact  that  every  girl, 
married  or  unmarried,  now  and  then  finds  herself 
in  a  position  where  it  becomes  necessary  for  her 
to  engage  more  or  less  actively  in  household 
work.  The  objection  of  shortage  of  time  for 
studies  of  this  character  is  met  by  the  suggestion 
that  it  would  be  better  to  lengthen  the  course 
correspondingly,  for  example,  in  compulsory  con- 
tinuation schools. 

Margarete  Henschke  points  out  in  her  lectures 
on  the  organization  of  continuation  schools  for 
girls  that  a  purely  commercial  training  condemns 
girls  to  a  position  of  helplessness  in  the  domestic 
life  of  the  home,  a  position  such  as  has  become 
proverbial  in  the  case  of  bachelors  and  widowers. 
"To  lengthen  the  course  of  instruction  for  this 
purpose  would  not  be  at  all  impractical,"   she 


140    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

argues,  "inasmuch  as  the  girls  do  not,  as  is  the 
case  of  the  boys,  serve  one  or  two  years  in  the  army, 
hence  this  time  might  be  used  for  their  further 
training,  and  thus  the  girls  would  suffer  no  dis- 
advantages as  against  the  boys."1 

An  illustration  of  the  crystallization  of  this 
controversy  has  been  furnished  by  the  city  of 
Berlin,2  which  was  the  first  city  to  avail  itself  of 
the  rights  under  the  new  law,  which  allows  munici- 
palities the  right  to  require  compulsory  school 
attendance  of  all  girls  under  eighteen  years  of  age 
who  are  engaged  in  industry3  (see  page  70). 

In  the  case  of  commercial  students,  one  and 
one  half  hours  are  deducted  from  the  six  hours  per 
week  (the  usual  time  allotted  in  Prussia)  for  in- 
struction in  domestic  science;  hence,  according  to 
the  opinion  of  Fraulein  Agnes  Herrmann  of  the 
Kaufmdnnischer  Verband  fur  weibliche  Angestellte, 

the  commercial  course  is  cut  too  short,  and  the  girls 
must  suffer  in  consequence,  as  compared  with  the  boys, 
who  receive  the  full  time  of  six  hours.  The  commer- 
cial continuation  school  can  and  must  furnish  ade- 
quate commercial  training,  and  for  that  purpose  the 
customary  six  hours  per  week  are  required  and  not 

1  Statement  made  by  Fraulein  Henschke,  principal  of  the 
Victoria- Fortbildungsschule,  a  well-known  continuation  school 
of  Berlin. 

a  This  law  went  into  effect  Easter,  19 13.  After  the  schools 
are  fully  developed  (in  three  years,  19 16)  they  will  enroll  in 
Berlin  alone  about  30,000  girls. 

3  The  right  to  enforce  a  similar  attendance  upon  all  girls  en- 
gaged in  commercial  work  has  existed  since  1900. 


Internal  Organization  141 

one  single  hour  can  be  spared.  An  increase  in  the 
number  of  hours  of  instruction  for  the  sake  of  finding 
a  place  for  domestic  science  is  very  difficult  to  obtain, 
because  the  employers  are  unwilling,  as  a  rule,  to 
grant  the  added  time  off. 

The  female  handicraft  workers  and  apprentices 
having  a  three-year  contract  attend  the  same 
courses  that  are  given  to  the  boys  engaged  in  the 
same  occupation.  These  girls  are  to  receive  in- 
struction in  domestic  science  only  after  their  num- 
ber has  become  large  enough  for  the  forming  of  a 
class.  The  tailors,  milliners,  and  laundresses  have 
four  hours'  vocational  instruction  and  two  hours'  in- 
struction in  household  economics.  The  unskilled 
workers  receive  instruction  for  four  hours  per 
week  in  household  economics,  and  for  two  hours 
in  technology.  This  seems  to  be  an  admirably 
arranged  course  for  this  class  of  girls,  since  trade 
knowledge  would  not  in  any  event  be  of  much 
benefit  to  them.  In  general,  these  girls  do  not 
receive  instruction  in  domestic  science  from  their 
mothers;  hence  these  subjects  may  be  used  to 
great  advantage  in  the  schools  as  a  means  of  cul- 
tivating the  general  intelligence  of  the  pupils. 

In  some  cities,  the  instruction  in  domestic  sci- 
ence provided  for  girls  engaged  in  commercial  work 
takes  place  in  the  evening,  after  the  close  of  office 
hours,  in  conformity  with  a  plan  of  increasing  the 
number  of  hours  of  instruction  without  necessitating 
additional  leave  of  absence  from  work. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  one  day  in  each  week 


142    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

be  set  aside  for  the  purposes  of  instruction,  in  order 
that  the  other  days  may  be  unbroken  for  work. 

Another  plan  that  has  suggested  itself  is  to 
devote  two  and  one  half  years,  consisting  of  six 
hours  of  instruction  per  week,  exclusively  to 
commercial  studies  and  to  reserve  the  completing 
one  half  year  of  the  three  years'  course  for  instruc- 
tion in  domestic  science. 

Another  movement  seeks  to  put  domestic 
science  instruction  in  the  eighth  grade  of  all  the 
public  schools.  This  has  already  been  done  in 
Baden  and  in  Bavaria,  and  it  is  expected  that 
Oldenburg  will  soon  be  added  to  the  list.  This 
plan  makes  it  possible  for  girls  entering  upon  com- 
mercial careers  to  take  the  same  courses  as  do 
the  boys. 

3.  School  Hours,  (a)  Sunday  and  Evening 
Hours.  The  hours  of  labor  were  formerly  so  long 
that  Sundays  and  holidays  offered  about  the  only 
available  time  for  the  giving  of  instruction  to  the 
pupils  of  the  continuation  schools.  The  employ- 
ment of  these  days  in  this  manner  was  always  met 
by  a  certain  opposition  that  traced  its  origin  to  the 
feeling  that  Sunday  afternoon  should  be  a  time 
of  rest  and  recreation.  Gradually  there  began 
to  be  a  substitution  to  the  Sunday  forenoon.  In 
South  German  States  the  children  in  attendance 
on  the  Sunday  and  holiday  schools  (we  have  al- 
ready noted  that  the  large  majority  of  the  pupils  are 
girls,  as  other  schools  have  been  quite  extensively 


Internal  Organization  143 

established  for  boys)  generally  pursue  in  the 
morning  their  literary  studies  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  public  school  teacher  and  in  the  after- 
noon receive  their  lesson  in  religion  from  the 
pastor.  Thus  the  whole  of  the  day  that  is  nor- 
mally reserved  for  rest  and  recreation  is  more  or 
less  consumed  in  work,  and  that  is  one  of  the 
reasons  why  the  children  so  universally  hate  it. 
But  as  the  Sunday  and  holiday  school  is  gradually 
being  replaced  by  the  general  continuation  school, 
as  in  Wurttemberg,  or  the  industrial  or  commer- 
cial continuation  school,  as  is  becoming  more  and 
more  the  case  all  over  Germany,  we  notice  a  de- 
cided attempt  to  abandon  Sunday  instruction.1 
Altogether,  however,  as  long  as  the  attendance 
upon  some  of  these  later  institutions  is  voluntary, 
Sunday  offers  the  best  time  to  assemble  certain  of 
the  pupils,  as  there  are  those  who,  while  unwilling 
to  attend  an  uninteresting  church  service,  yet 
would  be  glad  to  go  to  a  school  where  they  could 
learn  about  their  trade.  In  this  way  Sunday  in- 
struction presents  a  chance  to  boys  to  keep  from 
loafing  and  from  worse  than  wasting  their  time. 
The  night  is,  moreover,  not  considered  the  best 
time  for  instruction.     Instances  are  encountered 

1  Sunday  instruction  is  forbidden  according  to  Sec.  120  of  the 
Gewerbeordung  of  the  Empire,  when  it  conflicts  with  the  chief 
service  of  the  church  attended  by  the  pupil;  but  this  law  is  vio- 
lated in  some  cities.  It  is  only  one  of  the  many  evidences  of  the 
fight  that  is  going  on  at  present  for  more  control  on  the  part  of 
the  Church,  and  the  resentment  of  this  control  by  some  of  the 
directors  and  those  who  wish  to  separate  Church  and  State. 


144    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

of  schools  holding  sessions  after  ten  o'clock  in  the 
evening.  It  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  find  some 
pupils  falling  asleep  in  the  course  of  a  two-hour 
session,  and  this,  too,  when  a  visitor  is  present. 
Such  somnolence  has  occurred  even  in  classes 
beginning  at  seven  o'clock  in  the  evening. 

(b)  Transition  to  Daytime  Instruction  during 
Week.  Daytime  instruction  during  the  week  is 
conceded  to  be  the  more  result-producing;  hence, 
in  the  compulsory  continuation  schools  the  day  is 
being  devoted  increasingly  to  instruction. 

Hessen  led  the  way  in  this  direction.  The  law 
of  1900  prescribed  "that  the  hours  of  instruction 
of  the  continuation  schools,  in  so  far  as  they  are 
not  placed  in  the  afternoon,  shall  be  put  in  the 
early  evening  hours  and  must  terminate  by  seven 
o'clock  at  the  latest."1 

In  1906,  the  law  of  Wurttemberg  required  that 
the  instruction  in  the  industrial  continuation 
schools,  in  so  far  as  compulsory  subjects  were  con- 
cerned, must  take  place  on  week  days  and  in  the 
daytime,  and  that  the  sessions  must  close  not 
later  than  seven  in  the  evening. 

The  following  table  shows  the  distribution  of  the 
hours  of  instruction  in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony. 
We  note  that  in  the  course  of  fifteen  years  there  is 
a  constant  decline  in  the  percentage  of  hours  re- 
served for  instruction  on  Sundays,  whereas  there 
is  a  marked  increase  in  the  number  devoted  to  this 
purpose  on  the  other  days  of  the  week,  and  partic- 

1  Siercks,  Das  deutsche  Fortbildungsschulwesen,  p.  88, 


Internal  Organization 


145 


ularly  noteworthy  is  the  increase  in  the  daytime 
hours  of  the  week. 


1889 

1894 

1899 

1904 

Sundays 

36.1 
38.9 
25.0 

30.1 
40.6 
29-3 

26.3 
39-6 
34-1 

23-5 

Week  day  evenings  .  .  . 
Daytime  hours 

41.6 
34-3 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  these  tables  with 
those  summarizing  conditions  in  the  industrial 
continuation  schools  of  Prussia,  as  indicated  in 
the  report  of  December  1,  1908: 

Of  the  2169  schools  existing  at  that  time, 
1075  or  50%  had  Sunday  forenoon  instruction. 
1396  or  64%    "    instruction  before  8  o'clock  in  the  evening  only. 
600  or  28%    "  "  after     "       "       "     "        "        also. 

6l  or    3%    "  "  "        "       "       "     "         M      only. 

The  number  of  hours  of  instruction  totaled  60,648. 
Of  this  number, 
6,747  or  1 1  %  were  given  on  Sunday. 
46,455  or  77%      "       "     before  8  o'clock  in  the  evening. 
7,446  or  12%      "        "      after     "       "       "     " 
The  392  commercial  continuation  schools  of  Prussia  showed 
the  following  on  December  1,  1909: 

36  or    9%  had  instruction  on  Sunday  forenoon. 
219  or  56%    "  "  before  8  o'clock  in  evening  only. 

130  or  38%    "  "  after    "       "       "         "        also. 

38  or  10%    "  "  "        "       "       "         "        only. 

The  total  number  of  hours  of  instruction  was  14,232. 
Of  this  number, 

193  or    1  %  were  given  on  Sunday. 
11 .335  or  80  %  were  given  before  8  o'clock  in  the  evening. 
2,704  or  19%      "         "      after    "      "        "     " 

There  are  several  conditions  that  still  make  Sun- 
day and  evening  instruction  practically  a  necessity. 
it 


146    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

(a)  It  is  often  difficult  to  secure  suitable  teach- 
ers who  are  free  in  the  daytime. 

(b)  As  the  school  buildings  are  being  used  in 
the  daytime  for  the  public  schools,  the  continuation 
school  instruction  must  be  given  at  other  hours, 
because  separate  buildings  have  in  many  cases 
thus  far  not  been  provided ;  and  finally 

(c)  Unless  compulsory  attendance  is  inaugu- 
rated, the  employer  will  not  always  grant  the 
pupil  leave  of  absence  during  business  hours. 

Instruction  varies  also  according  to  the  season 
of  the  year.  In  country  districts  it  is  held  up  at 
times  because  of  the  bad  weather,  and  again  on 
account  of  the  gathering  of  the  important  crops. 
In  such  cases,  the  schools  are  in  session  for  a  longer 
period  per  day  during  the  more  suitable  school 
months,  when  children  can  the  better  be  spared 
or  when  it  is  easier  for  them  to  attend. 

The  question  of  hours  of  instruction  has  occa- 
sioned much  controversy  up  to  the  present.  Every 
continuation  school  paper  one  picks  up  gives  an 
account  of  some  bitter  contest  that  is  going  on 
in  some  German  State,  district,  or  city.  Slowly 
but  surely  daytime  instruction  is  gaining  the 
ascendency. 


VIII 

TEACHERS 

i.  Shall  Teachers  be  Appointed  for  Full  Time 
or  for  Part  Time;  Shall  Men  of  Practical  Experi- 
ence be  Appointed  as  Teachers?  At  the  present 
time,  the  most  valuable  asset  of  the  industrial 
and  commercial  continuation  schools  of  Germany 
is,  in  the  author's  opinion,  the  well-prepared  teach- 
ing staff.  Nevertheless,  nothing  seems  to  the 
school  authorities  and  directors  to  be  of  higher 
concern  than  the  further  training  of  the  teachers; 
and  the  question  ever  before  them  is  how  is  it 
possible  to  make  the  next  generation  of  teachers 
more  efficient  than  the  previous. 

The  great  majority  of  the  teachers  in  the  con- 
tinuation and  industrial  schools  are  at  the  present 
day  appointed  only  on  a  part-time  basis.  The 
following  table  shows  the  proportion  of  teachers 
serving  full  time  and  part  time  in  the  Kingdom  of 
Saxony  during  the  year  1899. x 

1  Lexis,  iv.,  p.  118. 

147 


148    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 


Teachers 

Full-Time 

Also  Pub- 

Engaged in 

SCHOOLS 

(Total) 

Teachers 

lic  School 
Teachers 

Industry 

State  Building 

49 

27 





Textile,  etc. 

175 





91 

Other  Trade 

363 





140 

Industrial  Continuation 

401 

67 



IOO 

Industrial  Drawing 

40 





Institutions  for  Women 

and  Girls 

143 







Commercial 

344 

I20 

160 

18 

The  following  table  taken  from  Der  Bericht  des 
Landesgewerbeamts,  1907,  p.  60,  shows  the  classi- 
fication of  teachers  for  Prussia  during  the  years 
1904  and  1906. 


Number  of  Teachers  in  Prussia 

Year 

INDUSTRIAL 
CONTINUATION  SCHOOLS 

COMMERCIAL 
CONTINUATION  SCHOOLS 

GUILD   AND  FRIENDLY 
SOCIETY  SCHOOLS 

Full 
time 

Part 
time 

Total 

Full 

time 

Part 
time 

Total 

Full 
time 

Part 
time 

Total 

1904 
1906 
I908T 

94 
199 
331 

9.624 
12,161 
13.712 

9.718 
12,360 
14.043 

64 
138 
206 

1.735 
2,063 
2,278 

1.799 
2,201 
2,478 

6 
16 
12 

1. 514 
1.476 
1.377 

1.520 
1.492 
1.389 

The  rapid  increase  in  the  number  of  teachers 
appointed  for  full  time  is  the  best  evidence  of  the 
whole  development  of  this  type  of  schools.  The 
same  growth  is  going  on  in  the  other  States.  In 
fact,  Baden  and  Wurttemberg  have  a  higher  per- 


1  Verwaltungsbericht   des   Konigl.   Preuss.   Landesgewerbeamts, 
1907,  p.  60. 


Teachers 


149 


centage  than  has   Prussia   of  teachers  who  are 
employed  for  full  time. 

Classified  according  to  their  previous  training 
or  occupation,  the  teachers  thus  far  have  been 
drawn  from  the  following  activities,  as  the  table 
herewith  will  show. 


INDUSTRIAL  CONTINUA- 
TION SCHOOLS 

COMMERCIAL  CONTINUA- 
TION SCHOOLS 

GUILD 

AND  FRIENDLY 
SCHOOLS 

YEAR 

;  ~   O   CD 
3-C  O 

11  h  h 

S3  rt  2 

CO 

•Ho  S3 

33-8 

Sort 
CUW  0 

rtO  S 

H.S 

S3rt  2 

.Soil 

CUCO  0 
H 

1         co 

Jo£  S3 

C  rt^i 

<u  a  2 
x:  0  S 

I904 
1906 
1908 

8,532 

10,732 
12,068 

5i6 
644 
753 

670 

984 
1,222 

1,613 
1,997 
2,287 

147 
142 
136 

39 
62 
55 

607 
567 
469 

691 

660 
697 

222 
265 
223 

Whereas  the  number  of  public  school  teachers  and 
teachers  belonging  to  the  handicraft  class  has  in- 
creased 25  per  cent.,  the  number  belonging  to  other 
trades  (draftsmen,  technologists,  and  engineers)  has 
increased  nearly  doubly  as  fast, — an  evidence  of  the 
ever  stronger  emphasis  which  is  being  laid  upon  the 
vocational  training. 

The  constant  decline  in  the  number  of  guild  and  of 
society  schools  for  vocational  instruction  is  evidenced 
by  the  decrease  in  the  number  of  teachers  employed. 
The  remarkable  fact  that  the  number  of  teachers 
belonging  to  the  commercial  class  shows  a  decline  is 
explained  by  the  supplanting  of  evening  instruction 
by  daytime  instruction,  hence  for  many  teaching  can 
no  longer  be  carried  on  in  connection  with  vocational 
activities. 


150    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

In  the  year  1907,  in  the  whole  Empire  there 
were  1957  teachers  employed  in  schools  conducted 
by  the  guilds.  Of  this  number  1221  belonged  to 
the  handicraft  class. f 

As  we  have  noted,  nearly  one-fifth  to  one-quarter 
of  the  commercial  and  industrial  continuation 
school  teachers  are  engaged  in  commerce  or  as 
handicraft  workers.  In  fact,  the  percentage 
employed  in  the  guild  schools  was  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  whole  teaching  force.  There  is 
scarcely  anything  connected  with  the  whole  indus- 
trial and  commercial  school  system  that  strikes 
a  visitor  more  forcibly  than  Germany's  ability 
to  summon  an  army  of  men  right  out  of  her  trades 
for  the  systematic  instruction  of  the  boys.  To  see 
a  blacksmith  teach  school  and  to  note  how  well 
he  keeps  order,  how  carefully  he  does  his  work, 
and  above  all  how  great  is  the  respect  the  boys 
show  him  cannot  fail  to  interest  and  impress  the 
American  visitor.  This  applies  also  to  carpenters, 
locksmiths,  barbers,  and  others.  When  one  re- 
flects carefully  on  these  conditions,  one  can  come 
to  no  other  conclusion  than  that  they  are  illus- 
trative of  the  thorough  grounding  of  German 
industry  and  of  the  careful  preparation  of  her 
workmen.  Fifty  years  will  not  suffice  to  enable 
the  United  States  to  develop  an  equally  high  per- 
centage of  learned  workers,  from  which  to  draw 
at  will  a  similar  proportion  of  capable  teachers 
engaged  in  the  trades. 

1  Statistisches  Jahrbuch  fur  das  Deutsche  Reich,  1908,  p.  59. 


Teachers  151 

The  complaint  made  in  Germany  against  these 
teachers  is  that  they  are  not  pedagogically  trained. 
There  is  much  truth  in  this  contention,  yet  the 
German  is  a  little  inclined  to  exaggerate  its  im- 
portance. While  teachers  of  this  type  would  be 
greatly  improved  by  a  better  pedagogical  outfit, 
due  credit  is  not  always  given  to  the  fact  that  in 
proportion  as  these  men  have  not  acquired  a  peda- 
gogical routine,  they  have  other  points  that  do 
much  to  compensate  for  the  deficiency.  First, 
they  are  not  so  absolutely  certain  about  their 
methods,  and  a  little  lack  of  confidence  is  often 
preferable  in  a  teacher  than  too  much.  It  makes 
him  more  receptive  to  new  ideas  and  suggestions. 

Second,  these  teachers  are  in  closer  touch  with 
the  practical  world  and  constantly  draw  on  every- 
day experiences  that  appeal  to  the  boys.  Third, 
these  teachers  are  more  capable  than  any  other 
type  of  conveying  the  idea  that  it  is  dignified  to 
labor.  Fourth,  not  inured  to  routine,  they  are  more 
resourceful  and  original.  If  an  idea  is  original,  it 
is  often  better  than  a  borrowed  one,  even  though 
twice  as  good.  Fifth,  these  teachers  do  more 
than  any  other  type  to  keep  up  a  good  feeling  be- 
tween the  schools  and  labor  organizations.  They 
are  the  great  medium  bond  of  sympathy. 

How  very  far  the  United  States  would  be  toward 
the  solution  of  its  industrial  school  problem  if  it 
had  such  a  band  of  teachers  to  stand  between  the 
labor  unions  on  the  one  hand  and  the  schools  on 
the  other! 


152    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

Herr  Schulrat  Kerschensteiner  of  Munich  told 
the  author  that  in  general  he  allowed  the  labor 
unions  to  suggest  suitable  teachers.  These  men 
of  practical  experience  were  then  pedagogically 
trained  by  the  directors  of  the  trade  schools. 
Hence  we  see  that  the  schools  are  established  on  a 
practical  basis.  By  this  we  do  not  mean  to  convey 
the  idea  that  we  should  wish  the  schools  to  be  in 
the  hands  of  those  who  had  had  practical  experi- 
ence only.  Dr.  V.  Seefeld  discusses  this  question 
quite  intelligently:1 

On  first  thought,  the  practically  trained  man  must 
be  accorded  an  important  advantage.  The  technical 
knowledge,  which  the  pedagogue  must  learn  through 
wearisome  effort,  is  the  life  element  of  the  practical 
man.  In  spite  of  this,  men  of  practical  experience 
are  not  in  a  position  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  the 
continuation  school  instruction.  In  classes  made  up 
of  pupils  of  various  trades,  and  in  the  case  of  unskilled 
workers,  they  are  not  in  a  position  to  make  use 
of  their  technical  knowledge.  Hence  men  from  the 
ranks  of  the  pedagogue  are  indispensable. 

It  is  not  true  that  pedagogues  are  not  in  a  position 
to  acquire  sufficient  practical  knowledge  to  enable 
them  to  enter  the  service  of  a  continuation  school. 
Since  practical  instruction  is  not  attempted  in  the 
continuation  school,  and  only  a  supplementary  train- 
ing is  sought  in  the  school  workshop,  a  general  tech- 
nical knowledge  is  quite  sufficient.  This  pertains 
especially  to  the  smaller  and  middle-class  schools  in 

1  Zeitschrift  fiir  das  gesamte  Fortbildungsschulwesen,  December, 
1909,  Heft  3,  p.  138. 


Teachers  153 

which  the  pupils  of  the  various  trades  mingle,  and 
general  instruction  takes  precedence  over  specialized. 
For  correct  methodical  handling  of  the  subject  matter 
and  for  the  cultural  tasks  of  the  school,  the  pedagogues 
are,  on  the  average,  much  better  prepared  than  are 
men  who  have  had  only  a  practical  training. 

The  speaker  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
11 pedagogue"  and  the  "practical  man"  should 
work  side  by  side. 

2.  Organization  for  the  Professional  Training 
of  Teachers.  In  Prussia  there  are  no  institutions 
whose  special  purpose  it  is  to  train  teachers  for 
the  continuation  and  trade  schools.  Nevertheless, 
in  the  commercial  continuation  school,  as  a  rule, 
only  such  teachers  are  appointed  as  have  been 
trained  in  a  commercial  high  school. 

The  qualifications  demanded  for  teaching  in  an 
industrial  continuation  school  are  not  quite  so 
high,  since  a  greater  latitude  must  be  given  to 
secure  teachers  for  the  various  special  trades. 
However,  there  is  now  on  foot  a  widespread  move- 
ment which  looks  toward  the  establishment  of  an 
industrial  high  school  for  the  training  of  teachers 
that  shall  be  equal  in  rank  to  that  of  the  commer- 
cial high  school. 

In  most  cases  at  the  present  time,  men  who  have 
had  practical  experience  are  given  a  pedagogical 
training  by  the  directors  of  their  schools. 

Throughout  all  Germany,  courses  extending 
over  four  or  six  weeks,  are  organized  (for  the  most 


154    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

part  in  summer)  for  the  purpose  of  giving  training 
to  teachers  of  the  continuation  schools.  Among 
the  first  and  best  of  this  kind  of  organization  are 
those  organized  in  1898  in  Leipzig  and  Frankfurt- 
on-the-Main.  The  courses  offered  are  given  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Deutscher  Verein  fur  das  Fort- 
bildungsschulwesen . 

The  plan  of  work  for  the  year  1908  was  in  brief 
as  follows : 

Scientific  Lectures 

1 .  Twelve  lectures  on  social  legislation. 

2.  Twelve  lectures  on  industrial  legislation. 

3.  Twenty- two  lectures  on  economics. 

4.  Twelve  lectures  on  the  history  of  modern  times. 

5.  Ten  lectures  on  industrial  art. 

6.  Lectures  on  technology. 

7.  Seven  lectures  on  the  arrangement  and  manage- 
ment of  the  workshop  for  metal  workers  (demon- 
strations being  given  in  a  workshop  of  the  trade 
school). 

8.  Six  lectures  on  the  subject  of  the  "continuation 
schools." 

9.  Four  lectures  on  the  subject  of  "continuation 
schools  for  girls." 

10.     Seven  lectures  on  trade  hygiene. 

Lectures  on  Method 

1.  Three  lectures  on  methods  in  a  continuation 
school. 

2.  Three  lectures  on  the  introduction  of  practical 
instruction  for  metal  workers. 


Teachers  155 

3.  Two  lectures  on  the  introduction  of  practical 
instruction  for  woodworkers. 

4.  Three  lectures  on  the  curriculum  for  the  building 
trades. 

5.  Three  lectures  on  the  curriculum  for  classes  in 
mixed  trades. 

6.  Two  lectures  on  the  curriculum  for  classes  in 
baking. 

7.  Four  lectures  on  industrial  art  drawing. 

Practical  Experience 

1.  Fifteen  hours'  practice  in  bookkeeping. 

2.  Ten  hours'  practice  in  calculation. 

Excursions 

On  two  afternoons  of  each  week,  industrial  es- 
tablishments are  visited  in  a  systematically  arranged 
order. 

Evening  discussions  in  the  course  of  which  im- 
portant questions  affecting  the  industrial  schools  will 
be  debated. 

The  above  plan  is  of  the  highest  interest  to  an 
American  teacher,  not  only  because  of  its  con- 
tents, but  equally  so  because  of  its  omissions. 
An  American  plan  for  the  industrial  and  com- 
mercial training  of  teachers  would  take  an  entirely 
different  direction.     (See  Chapter  XVII,  36.) 

Wurttemberg,  Baden,  and  Bavaria  have  pre- 
scribed a  thorough  course  of  seminar  training, 
which  is  followed  by  a  State  examination.  In 
these  seminar  courses  experienced  teachers  or  men 


156    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

of  practical  experience  (engineers,  handicraft  work- 
ers, or  persons  engaged  in  commerce),  provided 
they  possess  a  sufficient  degree  of  literary  educa- 
tion, are  enrolled. 

The  course  extends  over  a  period  from  one  to 
three  years,  according  to  the  candidate's  previous 
preparation  and  the  subjects  which  he  expects  to 
teach. 

For  the  professional  training  of  women  teachers, 
Prussia  has  established  special  institutions  in 
Potsdam,  Posen,  and  Rheydt.  In  addition  to 
these,  two  well-known  private  schools,  the  Victoria 
Foribildungsschule  and  the  Lette-Verein,  in  Berlin, 
are  authorized  to  train  industrial  school  teachers. 

In  the  seminars  for  industrial  school  teachers, 
only  such  women  are  enrolled  as  have  completed 
a  higher  girl's  school  course,  extending  over  nine 
years,  or  can  show  an  equivalent  training,  and  who, 
after  attending  the  seminar  one  year,  pass  an 
examination  as  teachers  in  handwork  or  household 
economics. 

The  one-year  course  (for  most  subjects)  closes 
with  an  examination ;  but  after  that,  the  candidate 
must  have  a  half-year's  practical  work  in  her 
special  subject,  and  finally  a  year's  trial  experience 
in  teaching,  before  she  can  be  granted  full  rights 
as  a  teacher. 

One  may  attain  the  right  to  teach  one  or  more 
of  the  following  subjects:1 

'  Vorschriften  des  Ministers  fur  Handel  und  Gewerbe  uber  die 
Ausbildung  von  Gewerbeschul-Lehrerinnen,  vom.  23,  January,  1907. 


Teachers  157 

(a)  Cooking  and  household  economics. 

(b)  Handwork  and  machine  sewing. 

(c)  Laundering. 

(d)  Tailoring. 

(e)  Millinery. 

(f)  Fancy  sewing. 

(g)  Drawing. 

For  the  two  subjects  last  named,  the  courses  in 
an  industrial  school  seminar  extend  respectively 
over  a  period  of  two  and  three  years. 

Up  to  the  present  time,  there  is  for  women  teach- 
ers, no  State  examination  in  commercial  and  con- 
tinuation schools,  neither  are  there  any  prescribed 
courses  for  their  training. 

Munich  and  Karlsruhe  have  seminars  quite 
similar  to  those  described  above  for  their  so-called 
A  rbeitsleherinnen. 


IX 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  AMERICAN 
COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   SCHOOLS 

THE  United  States  may  be  said  to  be  just  now 
entering  upon  that  period  of  the  establish- 
ment at  public  expense  of  industrial  and  com- 
mercial schools  for  the  masses  which,  as  we  have 
already  observed,  was  well  under  way  in  Germany 
more  than  thirty  years  ago.  The  first  State  to 
inaugurate  the  movement  in  America  took  earnest 
action  in  this  matter  less  than  eight  years  ago. 
Its  example  has  been  followed  by  several  other 
States.  The  interest  in  the  new  educational  pro- 
gram is  intense,  and  its  discussion  finds  sympa- 
thetic and  enthusiastic  listeners  in  large  numbers 
all  over  the  country.  The  powerful  forces  now 
agitating  the  subject  are  sure  to  advance  the  cause 
by  rapid  strides. 

The  opinion  which  prevailed  before  the  seven- 
ties in  Germany,  especially  in  Prussia,  that  in- 
dustrial and  commercial  education  were  matters 
of  private  enterprise  or  philanthropy  held  sway 
in  the  United  States  up  to  the  last  decade.  The 
development    of    schools    established    under    the 

158 


History  of  American  Schools      159 

influence  of  this  idea  forms  a  chapter  in  itself. 
This  same  decade  marked  the  transitional  period 
in  German  industrial  school  development  which 
the  United  States  is  experiencing  at  present. 

The  demand  for  a  school  system  that  would 
furnish  skilled  labor  for  the  various  and  numerous 
trades  of  the  country  was  not  keenly  felt  at  such 
an  early  date  in  the  United  States  as  it  was  in 
Germany,  because  here  we  have  relied  upon 
European  countries,  particularly  Germany,  for  a 
large  per  cent,  of  our  skilled  labor.  However,  in 
recent  years,  that  source  has  been  greatly  reduced. 
Added  to  this  are  the  almost  unlimited  natural 
resources,  the  use  of  the  most  modern  machinery, 
production  on  a  large  scale,  etc.,  that  have  enabled 
the  United  States  to  play  a  great  r61e  in  the  mar- 
kets of  the  world  without  that  well-organized 
educational  equipment  which  we  have  found  so 
characteristic  of  all  parts  of  the  German  Empire. 

New  economic  and  social  conditions  call  for 
corresponding  changes  in  social  organization. 
We  have  already  noted  how  new  situations  mani- 
festing themselves  in  Germany  in  the  early  nine- 
teenth century,  were  met  by  gradually  changing 
the  old-time  Sunday  school  into  one  of  an  indus- 
trial character,  which  later  gave  off-shoots  that 
grew  into  the  industrial  commercial  continuation 
and  trade  schools  of  to-day.  The  same  conditions 
that  necessitated  industrial  education  for  the 
masses  in  Germany  have  been  coming  into  evi- 
dence in  the  United  States  with  increasing  degrees 


160    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

of  intensity  from  decade  to  decade;  but  the  re- 
sources that  answered  the  appeals  from  time  to 
time  in  this  country  differ  widely  from  those  that 
came  to  the  rescue  in  Germany. 

The  means  for  the  founding  of  the  first  schools 
of  this  kind  were  derived  from  a  variety  of  sources 
and  were  given  under  unique  conditions.  If  we 
classify  the  schools  from  these  two  points  of  view, 
namely, — the  sources  of  the  means  and  the  motives 
of  the  founders, — then  we  see  most  clearly  how 
widely  different  was  the  situation  in  the  United 
States  as  compared  with  the  auspices  that  called 
these  same  institutions  into  existence  in  Germany. 


SCHOOLS  ESTABLISHED  BY  ENDOWMENT1 

i.     New  York  Trade  School.123    One  of  the 

best  schools  for  the  building  and  mechanical 
trades  is  the  type  presented  by  the  New  York 
Trade  School,  which  was  founded  in  1881  by 
Colonel  Auchmuty,  who  made  a  long  and  careful 
study  of  labor  and  of  social  problems.  He  re- 
cognized the  fact  that  with  the  decadence  of  the 
apprenticeship  system  was  removed  the  possibility 
of  securing  that  thorough  and  systematic  training 
which  enabled  young  men  to  become  mechanics 
of  the  highest  skill.  As  a  patriotic  American,  a 
sound  thinker  on  social  science,  and  a  loving 
friend  of  youth,  the  soul  of  Colonel  Auchmuty  was 
stirred  to  just  indignation  at  the  course  of  the 
tyrannical  and  selfish  labor  unions,  in  practically 
shutting  out  American  boys  from  the  chance  of 
learning  trades  and  in  reducing  to  the  lowest  point 

1  Throughout  part  of  this  chapter  the  numbers  (i),  (2)  or  (3) 
apply  to  the  following  sources  of  information  from  which  the 
material  regarding  the  schools  was  obtained: 

(1)  17th  Annual  Report  of  the  Com.  of  Labor,  1902,  pp.  24-36. 

(2)  8th  Annual  Report  Industrial  Education,  pp.  80-83. 

(3)  Recent  catalogues  of  the  schools  and  letters  from  the 
principals. 

11  161 


162    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

the  opportunities  of  study  as  apprentices.  Seeing 
no  other  way  to  meet  this  outrageous  assault  upon 
personal  liberty,  this  wrong  inflicted  on  innocent 
and  aspiring  lads,  he  determined  to  found  and 
maintain,  at  his  own  expense  if  necessary,  schools 
of  instruction  in  which  the  youths  of  New  York 
City  could  learn  their  trades  without  interference 
and  with  the  best  advantages.  In  the  face  of 
bitter  opposition  from  the  trade  unions,  the  plan 
was  carried  out  to  complete  success. 

As  an  aid  to  meeting  these  new  demands,  the 
founder  gave  land,  building,  and  equipment,  valued 
at  $300,000.  The  school  is  supported  by  tuition 
fees  and  by  an  endowment  fund  provided  by  the 
founder.  The  charges  for  tuition  in  the  day 
classes  range  from  $25  to  $40  per  term,  which 
extends  from  October  to  April.  Courses  conducted 
in  the  evening  cost  $6  to  $16  per  term,  according  to 
the  branches  in  which  the  student  enrolls.  The 
cost  of  maintenance  for  the  year  1899  to  1900  was 
$33,000.  There  are  twenty-eight  instructors,  all 
of  whom  are  practical  mechanics. 

The  enrollment  for  1899  to  I900  was  as  follows: 

DAY  CLASSES  EVENING  CLASSES 

Plumbing 118  Plumbing 166 

Carpentry 22  Carpentry 21 

Electrical  work 38  Electrical  work 54 

Bricklaying 17  Bricklaying  and  plastering 41 

Sign  painting 3  Blacksmith's  work 19 

House  and  fresco  painting 8  Sheet  metal  and  cornice  work ...  38 

Sheet  metal,  and  cornice  work..  4  Steam  and  hot  water  fitting..  . .  19 

Steam  and  hot  water  fitting 13  House,  fresco,  and  sign  painting  16 

Printing  and  drawing 30 

Total 223        Total 404 


Endowed  Schools  163 

Up  to  the  year  1913,  17,598  pupils  have  attended 
the  school,  and  for  the  four  years  preceding  this 
date  the  attendance  has  averaged  over  900  stu- 
dents. Each  year  almost  every  State  in  the  Union 
is  represented  in  the  day  classes.  The  1913-14 
catalogue  states: 

Each  year  invariably  shows  an  attendance  of 
students  from  the  various  provinces  of  Canada. 
Within  recent  years  the  classes  have  also  attracted 
young  men  from  the  countries  of  Guatemala,  Mexico, 
Republic  of  Panama,  Germany,  Norway,  Sweden, 
Egypt,  Liberia  (Africa),  China,  and  Japan. 

The  method  of  instruction  is  original  with  the 
founder  and  is  said  to  be  unlike  anything  previ- 
ously attempted  in  either  America  or  Europe. 
The  practical  and  theoretical  branches  are  taught 
"so  that  not  only  skill  is  quickly  acquired  but  the 
scientific  principles  that  underlie  the  work  are 
also  studied."  Speed  is  to  be  acquired  after  the 
student  leaves  school. 

The  building  trades  industry  in  greater  New 
York  is  said  to  have  derived  great  benefit  from 
the  school,  and  the  standard  of  intelligence  and  of 
efficiency  among  the  working  classes  generally  is 
said  to  have  been  raised  thereby. 

Labor  unions  have  opposed  the  school  to  some 
extent  on  the  ground  that  it  creates  an  oversupply 
of  labor.  A  recent  statement  from  one  of  the 
officers  of  the  school  reports  the  attitude  of  the 
unions  as  still  unchanged. 


164    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

2.  Pratt  Institute.123  In  1887,  Pratt  Institute 
was  established  by  Charles  Pratt,  who  had  made 
a  long  and  careful  study  of  trade  schools  in  both 
the  United  States  and  in  Europe.  The  founder 
wished  to  establish  an  institution  in  which  boys 
and  girls  could  get  such  a  training  as  he  himself 
had  felt  the  need  of  during  his  own  youth.  It  was 
his  belief  that  the  "existing  schools  did  not  give 
the  proper  preparation  for  the  life  of  a  great  major- 
ity of  the  people,  who  must  needs  earn  their  daily 
bread  through  their  own  toil  and  skill."  The 
object  of  the  school  is  "to  promote  manual  and 
industrial  education  in  science,  literature,  and  art ; 
to  inculcate  habits  of  industry  and  thrift ;  to  foster 
all  that  makes  for  right  living  and  good  citizen- 
ship, and  to  aid  those  who  are  willing  to  help 
themselves." 

The  total  endowment  is  $3,700,000.  The  tui- 
tion fee  in  most  courses  is  $15  per  term,  three 
terms  constituting  a  year.  For  evening  classes 
in  sewing,  basketry,  dressmaking,  drafting,  and 
millinery  the  tuition  fee  is  less.  The  founder 
doubted  the  widsom  of  making  the  instruction 
wholly  free.  On  the  subject  of  tuition,  Mr.  Pratt 
said: 

There  is  no  one  subject  in  connection  with  this  work 
upon  which  I  have  such  peculiar  feelings  as  when  a 
poor  man  comes  to  pay  his  hard-earned  wages  for  the 
education  of  his  child.  Instinctively  my  feeling  is 
to  say,  "  Don't  take  the  money ! "  but  in  my  cooler  and 


Endowed  Schools 


165 


calmer  thoughts,  the  judgment  formed  after  long  and 
patient  study  of  human  nature  tells  me  that  it  is 
wiser  and  better  for  everyone  to  pay  a  part  at  least 
of  the  cost  of  this  education. 


The  cost  of  maintenance  is  $250,000,  which 
sum  is  derived  almost  entirely  from  the  endowment. 

Of  the  128  teachers,  75  are  engaged  in  giving 
instruction  regarding  subjects  that  come  within 
the  scope  of  this  study.  The  number  of  students 
enrolled  in  these  departments  during  the  year 
1 900- 1 90 1  was  as  follows: 


DAY 

COURSES 

EVENING 
COURSES 

Fine  Arts 

283 
464 
117 

864 

220 

Domestic  Art 

72 
346 

638 

Science  and  Technology 

Total 

EVENING   TECHNICAL 

Physics 24 

Chemistry 48 

Applied  electricity 25 

Mechanical  drawing 59 

Steam  and  steam  engine ...  21 

Strength  of  materials 18 

Total 195 


EVENING   TRADE 

Carpentry 26 

Machine  work 44 

Plumbing 54 

Sign  painting 16 

Fresco  painting 11 

Total 151 


The  following  shows  the  enrollment  for  the  year 
1912-13: 


1 66    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 


DAY 

EVENING 

SPECIAL 

SCHOOL 

Men 

Women 

Men 

Women 

Boys 

Girls 

Fine  and  Applied 
Arts: 

Full  Time 
Part  Time 

227 

2 

225 
57 

285 

5 

943 

42 
322 

75 

51 

7 

62 
80 

10 

HouseholdScience 
and  Arts: 
Full  Time 
Part  Time 

229 

1 

282 

420 

844 

951 

Science  and  Tech- 
nology: 
Full  Time 
K  indergarten 
Training: 
Full  Time 
Part  Time 

1 
387 

1,264 

70 
6 

1,672 
1.330 

Library  Science: 
Full  Time 

Gymnasium: 
Part  Time 



76 
28 
56 

93 

28 

131 

617 

1,706 

1,233 

439 

58 

152 

4.205 

Total  number  of  day  students: 

Full  Time 1,357 

Part  Time 966 

2,323 

Total  number  of  evening  students 1,672 

"children 210 

4.205 

Students  enrolled  in  more  than  one  course 727 

Individuals  enrolled 3,478 


The  influence  of  this  school  as  exercised  through 
its  40,000  students  has  been  far  reaching,  espe- 
cially in  creating  new  standards  of  social  status 
and  elevating  public  sentiment  as  to  the  import- 


Endowed  Schools  167 

ance  and  dignity  of  manual  labor.  This  achieve- 
ment far  outweighs  the  personal  success  of  its 
pupils,  though  the  accomplishments  of  the  latter 
have  been  all  that  could  be  desired. 

The  local  labor  unions  opposed  the  school 
throughout  its  earlier  history,  but  now  seem  to 
have    realized    the    folly    of    such    an    attitude. 

3.    Baron  de  Hirsch  Trade  School.1 2    In  1891, 

the  Baron  de  Hirsch  Trade  School  was  established 
in  New  York  City  through  the  munificence  of 
Baron  de  Hirsch.  The  object  of  the  school  is  to 
aid  indigent  Hebrews  to  become  self-supporting 
in  as  short  a  time  as  possible. 

Applicants  must  be  in  good  physical  condition 
and  at  least  sixteen  years  of  age  and  must  be  able 
to  speak,  read,  and  write  English  and  be  able  to 
prove  to  the  authorities  that  they  have  some 
means  of  support  while  attending  the  school,  for 
only  the  instruction  is  furnished  free  by  the  school. 
Preference  in  admission  is  made  in  the  following 
order: 

(1)  Those  born  in  Russia. 

(2)  Those  born  elsewhere  in  foreign  countries. 

(3)  Those  born  in  the  United  States  of  foreign 
parentage. 

(4)  Those  born  in  the  United  States  of  American 
parentage. 

The  combined  gifts  of  Baron  de  Hirsch  amount 
to  $2,400,000,  but  a  large  part  of  this  total  has 


168    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

been  spent  in  aiding  the  education  of  Hebrews  in 
cities  other  than  New  York. 

For  the  class  which  graduated  at  the  end  of  January, 
1907,  there  were  702  applicants  for  admission;  of 
which  189  were  admitted  on  trial  and  59  were  placed 
on  the  waiting  list  of  the  next  class.  About  125  of 
this  number  were  graduated.  Of  the  class  graduating 
in  the  summer  of  1906,  there  were  22  machinists,  15 
carpenters,  40  electrical  workers,  37  plumbers,  and 
13  painters.  The  school  is  now  in  its  twenty-second 
year,  and  has  enrolled  to  date  3717,  of  which  3124 
have  graduated. 

The  pupils  have  done  good  work  as  helpers  and 
in  a  very  short  time  many  of  them  became  jour- 
neymen. It  has  been  estimated  that  the  average 
wage  for  an  unskilled  worker  in  New  York  City 
is  $5-39  weekly.  Those  who  have  attended  the 
Hirsch  School  five  and  one-half  months  receive 
on  the  average,  $7.54  weekly,  and  there  is  such  a 
demand  for  the  skilled  workmen  in  the  various 
trades  that  those  who  have  completed  the  course 
in  this  school  receive  at  the  very  beginning  from 
$5  to  $15  per  week. 

The  trade  unions  are  said  to  have  taken  an 
indifferent  attitude  toward  this  school. 


4.  Williamson  Free  School  of  Mechanical 
Trades.1  2  3  An  entirely  different  type  of  school 
from  any  of  the  foregoing  was  established  in  1888 


Endowed  Schools  169 

by  the  will  of  Isaiah  Williamson,  a  merchant  of 
Philadelphia.  In  his  endowment  deed  of  trust 
the  founder  stated  that  he  was  convinced  that  the 
abandonment  of  apprenticeship  at  trades  has  re- 
sulted in  many  young  men  growing  up  in  idleness, 
a  condition  of  things  which  leads  to  vice  and  crime, 
and  is  fraught  with  danger  to  society.  He  stated, 
furthermore,  that  the  main  object  of  his  school  is 
to  train  young  men  to  mechanical  trades  so  that 
they  may  earn  their  own  living,  and  that  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  educate  them  to  such  a 
point  as  to  make  them  dissatisfied  with  their 
employments.  He  also  directed  that  all  the  pupils 
should  be  taught  to  speak  the  truth  at  all  times 
and  trained  to  habits  of  frugality,  economy,  and 
industry,  and  above  all  fully  to  realize  that  any 
young  man  who  had  learned  a  good  mechanical 
trade  and  was  possessed  of  the  above-mentioned 
habits  was  sure  to  succeed  in  life.  To  carry  out 
this  program  he  turned  over  property  valued  at 
more  than  three  million  dollars.  The  benefits 
offered  by  the  school  are  secured  without  any 
expense  no  charge  being  made  for  board,  clothing, 
or  instruction.  Pupils  must  be  at  least  sixteen 
years  and  not  over  eighteen  years  of  age.  They 
must  have  had  an  ordinary  grammar  school  edu- 
cation. All  pupils  are  bound  over  to  the  trustees 
by  the  parents  or  guardians  for  a  period  of  three 
years. 

The  class  of  50  that  graduated  in  the  spring  of 
1907  was  divided  according  to  trades  as  follows: 


170   Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

Bricklayers  10  earning  from  30  to  65c.     per  hour 

Carpenters  10      "  "»  20  "    40c.      "       " 

Stationary  engineers        6       "  "  25  "    30c.       "       " 

Machinists  14       "  "  22  "    35c.       "       " 

Patternmakers  10      "  "  20  "    27^.    "      " 

In  all  there  have  been  over  one  thousand  pupils 
attending  this  school.  The  597  graduates  are 
divided  as  follows:  bricklayers,  143;  machinists, 
170;  carpenters,  121 ;  pattern  makers,  in  ;  station- 
ary engineers,  52. 

The  school  has  no  commercial  product.  From 
the  Massachusetts  Industrial  Commission  report, 
we  read: 

Many  of  the  finished  articles  are  given  away  but 
most  of  them  are  put  in  the  scrap  heap  and  are  de- 
stroyed. This  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  the  school  is 
on  good  terms  with  the  workers  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Philadelphia.  It  is  not  a  competitor  in  the  market. 
It  is  found  that  the  fact  that  the  manufactured  object 
is  not  kept  but  is  regarded  as  an  exercise  does  not  so 
influence  the  workers  that  they  become  careless  and 
slipshod  in  their  work. 

On  this  same  point  the  president  of  the  school 
writes  as  follows  : 

We  do  not  refrain  from  making  articles  for  the 
market,  simply  because  we  do  not  wish  to  enter  into 
competition  with  manufacturers.  This  has  some 
bearing  on  the  question  but  the  essential  item  is, 
that  our  course  would  be  not  nearly  as  efficient  if  we 


Endowed  Schools  171 

were  doing  commercial  work,  as  it  is  on  our  instruc- 
tional exercises.  Such  finished  pieces  as  may  be 
properly  included  in  such  a  course  and  which  can  be 
used  in  our  place  for  repairs,  are  not  destroyed . 

The  fact  that  finished  products  are  destroyed 
shows  what  a  great  power  the  unions  really  have, 
and  that  either  because  of  their  unreasonableness 
or  else  because  of  the  infantile  stage  in  which  the 
regulation  of  labor  matters  still  finds  itself,  the 
institution  is  forced  through  expediency  to  resort 
to  a  policy  of  absolute  waste  in  destroying  useful 
articles. * 

As  far  as  the  United  States  is  concerned  in  this 
question,  we  must  note  that  endowments  and  State 
appropriation  money  are  secured  without  much 
difficulty;  hence  there  is  a  certain  laxity  in  the 
methods  of  expending  sums  thus  secured. 

Special  information  from  the  school  states: 
"Ninety-five  per  cent,  of  our  graduates  enter  at 
once  on  trade  work  at  wages  60  to  100  per  cent, 
of  full  journeymen's  pay,  nearly  all  receiving  the 
latter  in  less  than  twelve  months."  A  letter  to 
the  author  from  the  president  contains  these 
statements : 

1  This  same  practice  of  destroying  finished  products  we  found 
in  some  of  the  German  Fach  schools.  It  is  one  of  those  difficult 
problems  that  future  legislation  in  both  countries  will  have  to 
solve.  Until  a  suitable  solution  can  be  found,  labor  is  conciliated 
by  a  destruction  of  the  finished  product.  But  that  such  a  solu- 
tion is  only  temporary  in  this  modern  educational  and  industrial 
reorganization  is  evident. 


172    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

Our  graduates,  we  are  pleased  to  say,  are  not  only 
high-grade  workmen,  but  excellent  citizens.  We  have 
had  a  number  of  experts  visiting  us  from  Europe, 
especially  from  Germany,  and  they  all  speak  of  the 
work  being  done  here  in  the  highest  terms.  During 
the  St.  Louis  Exhibition  there  was  a  special  represen- 
tative of  the  German  Government  visiting  us,  who 
was  delighted  with  what  he  saw  here,  and  said  that 
he  would  report  to  his  Government  that  it  was  the 
only  trade  school  in  America  which  did  work  worthy 
of  adoption  in  his  country. 

The  class  of  1910,  consisting  of  fifty-one  mem- 
bers, was  graduated  on  March  26th,  and  within 
six  months  after  graduation  its  members  were 
earning  an  average  of  $16.60  per  week.  In  answer 
to  an  inquiry  sent  out  September  1,  19 13,  fifty 
replies  were  received  within  one  month,  showing 
the  following  average  weekly  rate  of  compensation. ■ 

Average 
trade  Weekly  Rate  of 

Compensation 

Bricklayers $22.12 

Carpenters 19-59 

Engineers 13*62 

Machinists 16.32 

Pattern  makers 18.63 

The  general  average  within  eighteen  months 
after  graduation,  $18.05,  compared  to  the  attain- 
ment within  six  months  after  graduation,  $16.60, 
shows  a  gain  of  about  9  per  cent,  in  one  year. 

1  This  information  was  furnished  in  March,  191 4. 


Endowed  Schools  173 

The  class  of  191 1,  consisting  of  sixty-five  mem- 
bers, was  graduated  on  March  25th.  In  answer 
to  an  inquiry  of  the  following  September  1st,  the 
sixty-five  replies  received  within  five  weeks  sup- 
plied the  following  data: 

Average 
trade  Weekly  Rate  of 

Compensation 

Bricklayers $18.00 

Carpenters 15-51 

Engineers 1444 

Machinists 1542 

Pattern  makers I4-51 

The  general  average  was  $15.57  a  week,  not- 
withstanding the  depression  of  business. 

The  one  hundred  and  thirteen  members  of  these 
two  classes  combined  who  replied  to  this  inquiry 
were  employed  in  fifteen  different  States  consisting 
of  the  following : 

Pennsylvania  Missouri  Virginia 

New  Jersey  Oregon  Delaware 

Kentucky  New  York  Tennessee 

Illinois  Massachusetts  Nevada 

Wisconsin  Kansas  California 

and  two  in  Canada.  They  are  located  in  sixty 
different  cities,  towns,  etc.,  and  are  engaged  by 
eighty-eight  different  employers. 

102  are  active  in  trade  work. 

7  are  occupied  at  mechanical  draughting. 

4  after  working  at  their  trades  for  some  time,  left  their  em- 
ployment to  enter  college,  two  taking  mechanical  courses. 

2  on  account  of  illness  are  not  engaged  in  the  trade  they 
learned. 


174    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

Since  the  first  graduation  exercises  held  April  2, 
1894,  842  young  men  have  received  the  William- 
son School  Diploma,  19  of  whom  have  died.  Of 
the  remaining  823,  716  to  the  writer's  knowledge 
are  engaged  in  mechanical  pursuits. 

5.     California   School    of   Mechanical  Arts. f  3 

"This  school  is  the  outcome  of  the  generous  public 
spirit  of  James  Lick,  a  citizen  of  California.     Hav- 

1  Vol.  xvii.     Annual  Report  of  Com.  of  Labor,  1902,  pp.  70-79. 

s  Note  taken  from  Catalogue  of  1913. 

"Industrial  education  in  America,  being  still  in  the  experimen- 
tal stage,  is  marked  by  general  misunderstanding  and  uncertain 
use  of  terms.  To  explain  our  curriculum,  therefore,  requires  a 
few  preliminary  statements.  Between  the  time  of  James  Lick's 
death  (1875)  and  the  opening  of  the  school  (1895)  the  so-called 
manual  training  movement  had  set  in  and  had  resulted  in  the 
establishment  of  manual  training  or  polytechnic  high  schools  in 
many  of  the  principal  cities  of  America.  While  planning  our 
course  of  study  (in  1894)  we  have  a  careful  survey  of  the  entire 
field  of  industrial  education  both  in  America  and  abroad,  with  a 
view  to  selecting  such  features  as  could  best  be  adapted  to  our 
special  needs  and  incorporated  in  a  scheme  of  instruction  that 
would  effectively  carry  out  the  wishes  of  the  founder  of  the 
school,  as  indicated  by  the  terms  of  his  bequest.  At  that  time 
we  recognized  that  the  prevailing  type  of  manual  training  high 
school  was  not  sufficiently  practical  for  our  needs,  yet  up  to  a 
certain  point  it  had  elements  of  value,  and  these  we  endeavored 
to  embody  in  our  general  plan,  which  was  described  in  our  first 
circular  in  the  following  words:  Manual- training  schools  through- 
out the  United  States  confine  themselves  to  a  course  that  is  valued 
for  the  general  and  symmetrical  education  it  affords,  rather  than 
for  the  specific  information  it  imparts,  while  the  question  as  to 
what  particular  pursuit  the  student  is  going  to  follow  for  a  living 
receives  no  consideration,  this  important  and  critical  matter  be- 
ing left  to  the  student's  own  discretion  after  graduation.     It  is 


Endowed  Schools  175 

ing  been  brought  up  in  narrow  circumstances, 
earning  his  living  in  early  manhood  as  a  me- 
chanic, he  sympathized  with  the  struggles  of  the 
young  for  a  place  in  life,  and  resolved  to  found  a 
school  where  those  dependent  upon  themselves 
could  receive  such  education  as  would  give  them 
a  foothold  in  the  world."  In  1875,  Mr.  Lick  ex- 
ecuted a  deed  of  trust  which  provided  $540,000 
for  the  establishment  of  the  California  School  of 
Mechanical  Arts.  Owing  to  legal  complications, 
the  school  was  not  put  into  operation  until  1895. 


our  plan  to  begin  with  a  Preliminary  Manual  Training  Course, 
and  when  the  student  has  nearly  completed  it,  to  allow  him  to 
select  one  of  the  Technical  Courses  in  order  that  he  may  devote 
to  his  chosen  field  of  work  his  entire  time  for  two  years, — making 
the  course  four  years  in  all.  When  the  pupils  enter  the  school 
our  first  care  is  to  cultivate  in  them  self-reliance  and  judgment, 
good  tastes,  and  correct  habits  of  thought  and  action.  This  is 
done  as  far  as  possible  through  the  agency  of  things  that  will  be 
of  service  to  them  in  the  latter  parts  of  their  course  or  in  after-life. 
Little  by  little  this  educational  process  gives  way  to  the  consid- 
eration that  our  social  conditions  require  that  every  member  of 
the  community,  if  he  is  to  be  successful,  must  know  thoroughly 
some  one  thing,  and  the  ultimate  object  of  our  course  is  to  afford 
each  student  an  opportunity  to  acquaint  himself  with  all  that 
pertains  to  one  of  several  of  the  most  important  industrial  pur- 
suits. In  other  words,  we  begin  from  the  educational  or  aesthetic 
side,  and  end  with  the  practical  or  labor  side. 

"At  the  beginning  of  the  third  year  any  student  who  has  com- 
pleted the  first  two  years  of  the  Preliminary  Course  with  satis- 
factory standing  may  elect  one  of  the  Trades  or  Technical  Courses 
pursuing  therein  a  formal  apprenticeship  of  two  years,  leading 
to  a  diploma  of  graduation.  The  Preliminary  Course  does  not 
end  abruptly  at  the  close  of  the  second  year,  but  merges  into  the 
apprenticeship  courses  for  about  six  months. 


176    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

The  school  is  open,  free  of  a  tuition  charge,  to 
any  boy  or  girl  of  the  State  of  California  who  has 
completed  the  eighth  grade  of  the  grammar  schools. 

The  school  plans  to  give  each  student  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  technique  of  some  one  industrial 
pursuit  whereby  he  can  earn  a  living,  and  to 
develop  in  him  a  degree  of  intelligence  that  will 
prepare  him  for  the  duties  of  active  citizenship. 

Up  to  1902  the  institution  had  enrolled  2301 
students,  which  number  has  since  then  nearly 
been  doubled.  The  enrollment  for  1901-02  was 
as  follows: 


"Thus  far,  during  the  fifteen  years  since  the  school  was  estab- 
lished, we  have  not  found  it  necessary  to  make  any  radical  changes 
in  this  fundamental  conception  of  our  curriculum.  Yet  we  have 
held  ourselves  in  readiness  at  all  times  to  accept  any  new  ideas 
that  might  come  from  the  widespread  study  and  investigation 
in  this  field,  especially  during  recent  years.  It  is  our  belief  that 
it  should  be  one  of  the  functions  of  an  endowed  school,  such  as 
this  one  is,  to  do  a  liberal  share  of  the  pioneer  work  in  education, 
showing  the  way  rather  than  trailing  behind.  A  vocational 
trend  is  undoubtedly  the  most  marked  feature  of  the  industrial 
education  movement  of  the  present  day,  not  so  much  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  actual  teaching  of  trades,  but  better  described  as  ^re- 
vocational,  having  in  view  the  propagation  of  a  general  indus- 
trial intelligence  among  boys  between  the  ages  of  13  or  14  to  17 
or  18,  when  the  period  of  formal  apprenticeship  usually  begins. 
In  time  to  come  this  movement  may  have  important  conse- 
quences in  modifying  our  curriculum,  but  for  the  present  it  con- 
firms us  in  the  course  we  have  pursued  and  points  the  way  more 
clearly  for  improvement  in  certain  details.  More  and  more  we 
find  that  efficiency  in  teaching  is  gained  by  adhering  to  the  prac- 
tical viewpoint,  even  in  teaching  the  so-called  cultural  subjects, 
and  especially  by  making  the  industrial  and  the  academic 
subjects  reinforce  each  other  at  every  opportunity." 


Endowed  Schools 


177 


J3 

•fa's 

>> 

■gj 

86 
63 

03*3 

(-.•J3 

.2  c 

< 

0 
.2  C 

< 

u 

S3 

E 

O 

> 

1 

Bovs 

99 
33 

38 

16 

32 
14 

20 

6 

85 
18 

10 

I 

284 
88 

Girls 

Total 

132 

54 

46 

26 

IO3 

II 

372 

The  graduates  so  far  have  been  distributed  in 
the  following  departments:  pattern  making,  forge 
work,  machine  shop,  machine  drawing,  architec- 
tural drawing,  technical  industrial  art,  technical 
modeling,  technical  dressmaking  and  millinery, 
industrial  chemistry,  etc. 


6.    The  Wilmerding  School  of  Industrial  Arts. 

In  1899,  the  Wilmerding  School  of  Industrial 
Arts  was  established  at  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  by 
the  gift  of  $400,000  contributed  by  Mr.  Wilmerd- 
ing. The  object  of  the  school  is  "to  teach  boys 
trades,  fitting  them  to  make  a  living  with  their 
hands,  with  little  study  and  plenty  of  work." 
It  is  intended  that  the  graduates  of  the  school 
shall  be  well-instructed  workmen  in  the  trades 
which  they  select,  and  intelligent  citizens.  The 
equipment  of  tools,  machinery,  and  appliances 
is  very  complete.  The  course  is  designed  to  cover 
four  years.  There  is  no  charge  for  tuition,  the 
use  of  tools,  instruments,  or  materials.  Any  boy 
who  has  graduated  from  the  eighth  grade  of  gram- 


178    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

mar  school  will  be  admitted  to  any  department  of 
this  school.  Boys  who  have  finished  only  the 
seventh  grade  will  also  be  admitted,  provided  they 
are  over  sixteen  years  of  age. 

7.    The    Hebrew    Technical    Institute.     The 

Hebrew  Technical  Institute  of  New  York  City 
was  established  in  1888  in  recognition  of  a  parti- 
cular need  that  "arose  from  the  fact  that  the  large 
influx  into  New  York  City  of  Jewish  immigrants, 
for  the  most  part  in  straitened  circumstances,  re- 
sulted in  a  heavy  strain  on  the  Jewish  charitable 
organizations.  It  was  recognized  that  in  many 
instances  permanent  relief  for  the  older  immigrants 
was  hopeless,  and  that  sure  relief  could  come  only 
through  the  proper  training  of  the  children." 
"It  was  felt  that  the  best  way  to  help  the  poorer 
classes  was  to  give  the  younger  members  an  educa- 
tion in  the  mechanical  trades,  and  thereby  place 
them  in  a  position  to  support  themselves  and  those 
dependent  upon  them."  "  Candidates  for  admis- 
sion must  be  of  Jewish  faith,  residents  of  New 
York  City,  at  least  twelve  and  one-half  years  of 
age,  healthy  and  strong  and  must  present  testi- 
monials of  scholarship  and  character."  " Tuition, 
books,  and  tools  are  furnished  free.  Warm 
lunches  are  provided  at  a  charge  of  one  cent  per 
day,  or  five  cents  per  week.  Shower  baths  are 
furnished  free,  and  bathing  forms  a  regular  part 
of  the  school  exercises."  The  full  course  requires 
three  years  for  completion.     The  number  enrolled 


Endowed  Schools  179 

in  the  different  classes  in  1901  was  as  follows: 
junior  class,  91;  middle  class,  48;  senior  class,  41. 
The  total  number  of  graduates  up  to  19 13  was 
1 06 1.  Of  the  989  that  reported  in  that  year, 
728,  or  74  per  cent.,  were  engaged  in  mechanical 
work. 

The  buildings  and  equipment  are  estimated  at 
about  $132,000.  The  annual  expense  of  main- 
tenance is  $20,000. 

The  funds  for  the  buildings  and  equipment  were 
provided  by  contributions  from  members  of  the 
Jewish  community,  and  the  institution  is  sup- 
ported by  the  annual  dues  and  contributions  of  two 
Jewish  societies,  legacies  of  deceased  members,  and 
proceeds  of  occasional  benefit  entertainments. 

"The  officials  feel  that  the  institute  has  proved 
eminently  satisfactory,  and  has  fully  attained  the 
end  for  which  it  was  established."1 

The  labor  union  representing  the  woodworking 
trade  has  opposed  the  institute  on  the  ground  that 
it  was  turning  out  too  many  young  men  who  enter 
that  trade. 

8.  Miller  Manual  Labor  School.2  By  a  be- 
quest of  more  than  $1,000,000  from  Samuel  Miller, 
the  Miller  Manual  Labor  School  of  Albemarle 
County,  Crozet,  Va.,  was  established  for  "as  many 
poor  orphan  children,  and  other  white  children 
whose  parents  are  unable  to  educate  them  (such 

1 17th  Annual  Report  of  the  Com.  of  Labor,  1902,  pp.  81-84. 
2  Ibid.,  pp.  86-89. 


180    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

orphans  and  other  children  to  be  residents  of  the 
county  of  Albemarle),  as  the  profits  and  income 
of  the  funds  herein  devised  and  bequeathed  will 
admit  of." 

At  first  only  boys  were  admitted,  but  since 
1884  girls,  too,  have  been  admitted.  As  a  rule, 
the  pupils  are  between  the  ages  of  ten  and  four- 
teen years.  For  the  year  1 900-1 901,  there  were 
nineteen  teachers  employed  in  conducting  indus- 
trial courses.  In  the  same  year  there  were  40 
pupils  engaged  in  woodworking,  24  in  the  machine 
shop,  24  in  the  foundry,  24  in  the  forge  shop,  3  in 
printing,  3  in  the  steam  and  electric  plant,  35  in 
dressmaking,  sewing,  etc.,  and  48  in  cooking. 
"The  total  number  of  pupils  who  had  entered 
the  school  from  its  organization  up  to  the  year 
1 90 1  was  1022.  Of  these  the  majority  remained 
in  the  school  from  four  to  seven  years." 

9.  Webb's  Academy  and  Home  for  Shipbuild- 
ers. William  H.  Webb,  recollecting  the  difficulties 
he  had  encountered  in  his  youth  in  learning  the 
art  of  shipbuilding,  endowed  an  academy  for  the 
purpose  of  teaching  this  art.  The  institution  pro- 
vides a  home  for  aged,  indigent,  or  infirm  men 
who  have  been  engaged  in  shipbuilding,  and  for 
their  wives  and  widows;  and  an  academy  to  "fur- 
nish to  any  young  man,  a  native  or  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States,  who  may  upon  examination  prove 
himself  competent,  of  good  character  and  worthy, 
free  and  gratuitous  education  in  the  art,  science 


Endowed  Schools  181 

and  profession  of  shipbuilding,  together  with 
board,  lodging,  and  necessary  implements  and 
materials  while  obtaining  such  education."  Can- 
didates for  admission  must  be  between  the  ages 
of  fifteen  and  twenty  years. 

The  number  of  pupils  in  the  different  classes 
during  the  year  1900-1901  was  as  follows:  junior 
class,  17;  middle  class,  10;  senior  class,  II.  The 
cost  of  maintaining  the  school  alone  is  $20,000 
per  annum.  The  sum  total  of  the  gifts  bestowed 
by  the  donor  amounts  to  nearly  $1,000,000. x 

10.    Drexel    Institute.     In    1891,    the    Drexel 

Institute  was  founded  in  Philadelphia  by  Anthony 
J.  Drexel,  whose  combined  gifts  amount  to  $3,000,- 
000.  Of  this  sum,  $1,000,000  has  been  expended 
upon  the  buildings,  their  equipment  and  appli- 
ances. The  endowment  fund  of  $2,000,000  is 
applied  to  maintaining  the  instruction. 

Mr.  Drexel  had  a  strong  sympathy  for  young 
men  and  women  who,  without  money,  are  eager 
to  improve  their  opportunities  in  the  various 
industrial  occupations.  He  knew  that  skilled 
labor  was  every  day  increasing  in  importance  and 
coming  more  into  demand. 

Besides  large  departments  in  architecture,  sci- 
ence, and  technology,  commerce  and  finance, 
domestic  science,  domestic  arts,  the  Institute 
offers  important  educational  facilities  through  its 
library,  museum,  and  picture  gallery,  which  are 

1 17th  Annual  Report  of  the  Com.  of  Labor,  1902,  pp.  175-180. 


182    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

open  free  to  the  public.  The  scope  of  the  Institute 
is  wider  than  that  of  any  other  institution  in  the 
country.  A  study  of  the  large  catalogue  of  more 
than  300  pages  reveals  the  fact  that  several  hund- 
red distinct  courses,  covering  almost  every  form 
of  instruction  in  art,  science,  and  industry,  are 
embraced  in  the  curriculum. 

The  tuition  fee  is  on  the  whole  very  low,  though 
in  several  of  the  departments  it  runs  as  high  as 
$80  per  year.  As  a  rule,  the  completion  of  a  high 
school  course  is  a  necessary  qualification  for  ad- 
mission. More  than  1000  pupils  are  in  constant 
attendance. 

11.  Spring  Garden  Institute.1  The  Spring 
Garden  Institute  of  Philadelphia  was  established 
in  1 85 1  to  teach  industrial  drawing  and  design. 
"The  special  need  that  led  to  the  establishment 
of  the  school  was  that  mechanics  were  unable  to 
read  the  drawings  of  mechanical  draftsmen,  and  it 
was  the  opinion  of  the  founders  that  they  could 
be  made  more  useful  to  their  employers  by  being 
trained  in  the  principles  of  linear  representation  of 
objects." 

The  courses  of  the  school  have  been  elaborated 
somewhat  since  its  inception.  The  following 
table,  representing  the  season  1900-1901,  gives 
the  number  of  pupils  then  enrolled  and  the  sub- 
jects studied  in  the  three-year  course. 

1 17th  Annual  Report  of  Com.  of  Labor,  1902,  pp.  188-192. 


Endowed  Schools 


183 


Pupils  in  the  Several  Classes  in  Spring  Garden  Institute 
1900-1901 


COURSES 

First 
Year 

Second 
Year 

Third 
Year 

Total 

Day  School 

Drawing,  designing,  etc. 
Mechanical  department 
Electrical  department 

II 

25 

5 
15 

5 

7 
8 

23 

48 
30 

Total,  day  school 

Night  School 

Free-hand  drawing 
Mechanical  drawing 
Architectural  drawing 
Designing 

Mechanical  department 
Electrical  department 

61 
I40 

45 
20 

40 
105 

25 

80 
45 
14 

20 
25 

15 

60 

48 
10 

15 
15 

10 

101 

280 
138 

44 

15 

75 

140 

Total,  night  school 

350 

184 

158 

692 

Total,  day  and  night  school 

411 

209 

173 

793 

The  building  and  equipment  cost  $200,000. 
The  average  cost  of  maintenance  is  $16,000  per 
annum.  The  Institute  derives  its  income  from 
tuition  fees  and  an  endowment  fund,  which  at 
present  amounts  to  $158,000. 

12.  General  Society  of  Mechanics  and  Trades- 
men.1 The  General  Society  of  Mechanics  and 
Tradesmen  of  New  York  City  took  up  the  work 
of  education  about  the  year  1820. 

Primarily  the  school  was  intended  for  the  gratui- 
tous education  of  the  children  of  indigent  and  deceased 

1 17th  Annual  Report  of  Com.  of  Labor,  1902,  pp.  192-195. 


184    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

members  of  the  society  only,  but  it  grew  in  such  favor 
that  other  children  were  admitted  upon  payment  of 
a  moderate  sum  for  tuition.  This  plan  was  success- 
fully continued  until  the  increasing  merits  of  the 
public  free  schools  rendered  it  no  longer  necessary, 
and  in  1858  it  was  discontinued.  In  1859,  the  society 
established  the  present  evening  school  for  the  pur- 
pose of  enabling  those  engaged  in  daily  occupations 
to  acquire  gratuitous  instruction  in  free-hand,  me- 
chanical, and  architectural  drawing,  modeling  in  clay, 
elementary  mathematics,  and  physics.  In  addition 
to  the  regular  class  work,  the  pupils  have  the  benefit 
of  technical  lectures  on  subjects  pursued  in  the  class 
room.  Tuition  is  free  to  any  young  man  sixteen 
years  of  age,  or  over,  and  of  good  moral  character. 

The  term  begins  in  September  and  ends  in  April. 
Sessions  are  held  four  evenings  each  week  from 
7 :  30  to  9 :  30  o'clock. 


Pupils  in  the  Evening  School  of  the  General  Society  of 
Mechanics  and  Tradesmen 


COURSES 

Elementary 
Class 

Advanced 
Class 

Architectural  drawing 
Mechanical 
Free-hand              " 
Clay  modeling 
Mathematics 
Physics 

70 

77 
66 

32 
20 
26 

34 
70 

63 

Total 

213 

245 

Endowed  Schools 


185 


The  following  table  shows  the  growth  of  the 
school  during  the  past  five  years : 


1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

Number  enrolled 
Number  of  instructors 
Number  of  classes 

2017 

28 
53 

2303 
31 
60 

2316 

33 
60 

2318 
32 
60 

2200 
32 

57 

Below  is  tabulated  the  number  of  graduates  in 
the  several  classes  of  the  past  decade : 


1903 

1904 

1905 

1906 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

32 

46 

52 

52 

47 

104 

123 

142 

131 

165 

making  a  total  of  894  graduates  for  the  period. 

The  value  of  the  building  and  of  the  equipment 
is  estimated  at  $300,000.  The  cost  of  mainte- 
nance is  about  $7500  per  annum,  and  is  provided 
by  the  society.  A  large  proportion  of  the  pupils 
are  mechanics  and  apprentices  already  engaged  in 
work  necessitating  a  knowledge  of  drawing,  and 
their  school  training  enables  them  to  become  more 
proficient  in  that  requirement. 

This  school  is  one  of  the  very  few  in  the  United 
States  that  offers  a  fair  comparison  to  similar  in- 
stitutions in  Germany.     Its  history  is  long  enough 


186    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

to  have  undergone  several  transitions  and  is  in 
some  respects  identical  with  that  of  the  German 
schools  inaugurated  about  the  same  time.  It 
first  educated  the  poor  children,  then  free  public 
schools  rendered  it  unnecessary  for  a  time,  and 
finally  it  was  reorganized  to  meet  entirely  new 
economic  conditions.  However,  in  the  fourth 
point  it  differs  from  the  German  type  and  develop- 
ment for  it  illustrates  the  American  trend  toward 
endowment  in  preference  to  the  securing  of  State 
support. 

13.  Mechanics  Institute.1  The  Mechanics 
Institute,  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  was  founded  because 
good  mechanics  were  lacking  in  certain  industries 
of  that  city.  When  men  of  high  technical  skill 
were  needed,  it  was  necessary  to  send  abroad  for 
them,  and  it  was  felt  that  there  should  be  some 
place  near  by  where  apprentices  and  mechanics 
and  young  women,  also,  could  receive  such  techni- 
cal instruction  as  would  not  only  be  useful  in 
ordinary  branches  of  industry,  but  would  also 
result  in  creating  a  class  of  artisans  who  would 
compare  favorably  with  the  technical  experts 
trained  in  foreign  schools.  The  Institute  was 
opened  in  1885.  From  that  date  to  1901,  24,000 
pupils  had  received  the  instruction  it  offers.  The 
number  of  pupils  in  the  different  classes  during 
1 90 1- 1 902  was  as  follows: 

1 17th  Annual  Report  of  the  Com.  of  Labor,  1902,  pp.  195-200. 


Endowed  Schools 


187 


Pupils  in  Selected  Classes  of  the  Mechanics  ', 

Institute 

1901-1 

902 

COURSES 

Day 
Classes 

Evening 
Classes 

Total 

Free-hand  drawing 

45 

115 

160 

Mechanical  drawing 

19 

225 

244 

Architectural  drawing 



24 

24 

Ornamental  design 

21 

30 

5i 

Composition    and    pen    and    ink 

drawing 

32 

20 

52 

Life  class 

29 

21 

50 

Painting,  oil  and  water  color 

52 



52 

Clay  modeling 

17 

17 

Art  history 

33 



33 

China  decoration 

7 



7 

Lettering 

IO 

10 

Mathematics 



30 

30 

Chemistry 



16 

16 

Electricity 



59 

59 

Steam  engineering 



16 

16 

Industrial  training  in  wood 



27 

27 

Industrial  training  in  iron 



44 

44 

Dressmakers'  training 

14 

14 

Total 

252 

654 

906 

The  Institute  owns  $400,000  in  property,  75 
per  cent,  of  which  is  devoted  to  school  purposes. 
The  cost  of  maintaining  the  entire  Institute  is 
about  $40,000  per  annum,  of  which  65  per  cent, 
is  chargeable  to  technical  training. 

14.  Cooper  Union.  This  institution  differs 
from  the  preceding  in  the  scope  of  its  work,  as  will 
be  seen  from  the  class  enrollment,  though  the 
spirit  of  the  founder  was  in  exact  sympathy  with 
the  movement  that  forms  the  main  consideration 
of  this  theme.     An  immense  sum  of  money  was 


188    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

left  to  the  trustees  to  provide,  (i)  instruction  in 
such  branches  of  knowledge  as  in  the  opinion  of 
the  board  of  trustees  would  tend  to  improve  and 
elevate  the  working  classes  of  the  city  of  New  York, 
(2)  to  support  and  maintain  a  free  reading  room, 
galleries  of  art,  and  scientific  collections,  and  (3) 
to  provide  a  school  for  the  instruction  of  women  in 
the  arts  of  design.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the 
fact  that  the  school  was  established  in  1854,  when 
trade  training  in  schools  was  still  practically  un- 
heard of  in  the  United  States,  led  to  an  entirely 
different  interpretation  of  the  founder's  wishes 
than  would  have  been  the  case  had  the  money  been 
given  twenty-five  years  later. 

This  school  forms  a  most  interesting  example, 
illustrating  how  school  curricula  represent  the 
educational  ideals  of  a  decade,  and  in  this  parti- 
cular case,  the  interpretation  above  referred  to 
forms  a  landmark  by  which  we  are  enabled  to  see 
how  marvelously  these  ideals  have  changed  in  the 
United  States  in  such  a  short  period  of  time. 

The  purpose  of  the  founder  is  further  elucidated 
by  a  quotation  from  his  biographer: 

Starting  in  when  a  boy,  Peter  Cooper  worked  at 
various  trades.  He  mastered  them  all  and  eventually 
became  a  business  man,  an  inventor,  and  a  successful 
manufacturer.  At  every  stage  of  his  progress,  how- 
ever, he  found  himself  hindered  by  a  lack  of  knowledge 
and  education.  As  an  apprentice  he  regarded  with 
intense  sympathy  the  needs  and  limitations  of  the 
class  to  which  he  belonged,  and  he  resolved  to  do 


Endowed  Schools  189 

something  for  apprentices.  He  was  possessed  with 
the  desire  to  found  an  institution  which  would  supple- 
ment the  deficiencies  of  early  education,  furnish  to 
the  virtuous,  industrious,  and  ambitious  youths  the 
means  of  progress,  and  attract  the  thoughtless  or 
indolent  into  the  same  ascending  road. 

The  amount  of  the  original  endowment  was 
more  than  $1,000,000,  but  the  amounts  added  by 
the  Cooper  family  and  by  Mr.  Andrew  Carnegie 
have  made  the  combined  sum  more  than  $2,000,000. 

The  following  table  will  give  an  idea  of  the  scope 
of  the  art  and  the  drawing  courses.  The  day 
school  is  exclusively  for  females,  and  the  evening 
school  exclusively  for  males,  except  the  classes 
in  perspective  and  elementary  architectural  draw- 
ing, to  which  women  also  are  admitted.  Tuition 
is  free  provided  the  applicant  can  give  evidence 
that  he  is  not  able  to  pay  for  it. I 

Pupils  in  the  Evening  Classes,  Cooper  Union 

Cast  drawing 136 

Form  drawing 120 

Decorative  designing 252 

Ornamental  drawing 200 

Rudimental  drawing 200 

Modeling  in  clay 90 

Mechanical  drawing 240 

Elementary  mechanical  drawing 70 

Architectural  drawing 300 

Elementary  architectural  drawing 200 

Perspective  drawing 65 

Total 1873 

1 17th  Annual  Report  of  Com.  of  Labor,  pp.  235-242. 


190    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

Pupils  in  the  Day  Classes,  Cooper  Union 

Elementary  cast  drawing 77 

Drawing  from  the  antique 29 

Life  drawing 27 

Still-life  class 20 

Portrait  class 15 

Modeling  in  clay 17 

Design,  historic  ornament,  etc 39 

Decorative  composition,  etc 17 

Illustration 27 

Retouching,  water  color,  porcelain,  etc 24 

Total 292 

It  is  estimated  that  at  least  8000  pupils  have 
completed  the  art  courses.  The  following  state- 
ment was  taken  from  the  1913  catalogue:  "The 
number  of  new  applications  received  for  admission 
to  the  classes  before  the  opening  of  the  last  school 
year,  which  are  outlined  below,  exceed  in  total 
that  of  any  previous  year: 

Night  School  of  Science 31 17 

Night  School  of  Art 2178 

Day  School  of  Technical  Science 525 

Woman's  Art  School 242 

School  of  Stenography  and  Typewriting  for  Women 188 

School  of  Telegraphy  for  Women 55 

Debate  and  Elocution 290 

6595 

"In  addition  to  these  new  applications,  there 
were  1758  students  who  were  either  promoted  from 
the  classes  of  the  previous  year  or  permitted  to 
repeat  classes,  making  a  total  demand  upon  the 
institution  at  the  beginning  of  the  last  school  year 


Endowed  Schools  191 

amounting  to  8353.  Of  this  number  it  was  possible 
to  admit  to  the  classes  only  a  fraction.  During 
the  first  week  of  November  the  enrollment  of  the 
individual  students  was  as  follows  : 

Night  School  of  Science 1246 

Night  School  of  Art 1 187 

Day  School  of  Technical  Science 264 

Woman's  Art  School 315 

School  of  Stenography  and  Typewriting  for  Women 43 

School  of  Telegraphy  for  Women 25 

Debate  and  Elocution 290 

3370 

"  Under  the  first  provision  of  the  will,  night 
classes  have  been  organized  for  working  men  and 
women.  These  classes  the  past  fifty  years  have 
been  attended  by  more  than  100,000  different 
persons." 

' '  The  free  reading  room  and  library  are  visited 
by  3000  persons  daily." 

This  institution  presents  another  exception  to 
the  institutions  mentioned  previously  in  that  it 
has  always  received  the  hearty  support  and  en- 
couragement of  the  labor  unions.  The  nature  of 
the  endowments  easily  explain  the  causes  of  this 
attitude. 

15.     Hebrew  Technical  School  for  Girls. ■    The 

purpose  of  this  school  is  to  prepare  young  women 
to  earn  their  living.     Its  financial  backing  has 

1  Second  Annual  Report  oj  Mass.  Industrial  Commission,  pp. 
607-613. 


192    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

been  secured  through  liberal  contributions  made 
by  a  considerable  number  of  individuals.  The 
land  and  equipment  represent  a  value  of  $400,000 
and  the  invested  funds  represent  $50,000.  The 
income  of  the  school  amounts  to  $30,000,  which 
represents  the  subscriptions  of  about  1800  people. 

The  number  of  pupils  in  191 2  was  477,  of  whom 
324  were  in  the  commercial  course.  Why  com- 
mercial courses  are  preferred  to  manual  courses 
will  be  shown  in  the  chapter  on  commercial  schools, 
but  a  typical  answer,  stating  the  reasons  pretty 
well,  was  made  by  a  fifteen -year-old  girl,  who,  on 
entering  the  school,  was  asked  to  write  what 
prompted  her  to  choose  the  commercial  as  against 
the  manual  course.  ''She  thought  the  commercial 
department  preferable  for  the  following  reasons: 
she  had  found,  even  within  her  limited  experience 
that  mental  work  was  easier  and  pleasanter  than 
physical  work ;  that  mental  work  is  better  paid  than 
manual  work;  that  the  office  hours  of  the  girl  in 
commercial  work  are  shorter  than  those  of  the 
girl  who  takes  up  dressmaking  and  millinery,  and 
thus  more  time  is  available  after  work  hours  for 
improvement  through  study  in  some  evening 
school." 

"The  girls  are  nearly  all  graduates  of  a  public 
grammar  school,  and,  while  80  per  cent,  of  these 
girls  were  born  in  the  United  States,  yet  only  10 
per  cent,  of  their  parents  were  born  here." 

A  recent  inquiry  into  the  success  of  girls  who 
have  gone  out  of  this  school  produced  a  most 


Endowed  Schools  193 

satisfactory  report.  Of  705  girls  whose  reported 
earnings  aggregated  over  $406,000,  amounting  per 
girl  to  an  average  of  $575  a  year,  or  weekly  wage 
of  over  $11,  some  662  had  pursued  the  commercial 
course,  and  the  average  weekly  earnings  of  these 
amounted  to  $11.27; the  43  girls  who  had  pursued 
the  manual  course  earned  on  an  average  $8.15 
a  week.  Of  this  latter  group,  ten,  who  were 
engaged  in  millinery,  earned  on  an  average  $8.45 
per  week;  two,  at  embroidery,  earned  $7.50;  two, 
at  shirt-waist-making,  $11;  twenty-two,  at  hand- 
sewing,  $6.61;  three,  at  dressmaking,  $11.66;  four, 
as  assistant  teachers  in  other  institutions,  $12.25. 

16.    Manhattan  Trade  Schools  for  Girls.     The 

definite  aim  of  this  school  is  to  enable  girls  to 
secure  in  a  minimum  time,  such  training  as  will 
put  them  in  a  position  to  obtain  a  living  wage. 
The  school  is  supported  by  voluntary  contribu- 
tions and  donations,  which  at  present  amount  to 
about  $200,000.  Tuition  is  free.  The  original 
requirements  for  admission  demanded  that  girls 
be  over  fourteen  and  under  seventeen  years  of 
age,  and  that  they  be  able  to  show  their  fitness 
and  need  for  the  school. 

A  variety  of  courses  are  maintained  in  work 
especially  suitable  for  women.  This  school  differs 
from  the  preceding  in  that  it  produces  commercial 
articles  for  sale,  the  income  of  which  amounted, 
in  1906,  to  $6600.  The  girls  who  have  completed 
the  courses  are  in  great  demand  by  employers. 
13 


194    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

In  1907,  189  positions  were  filled  by  the  school 
department,  the  incumbents  being  distributed  as 
follows, — 80  dressmakers,  6  hand-sewers,  38  opera- 
tors, 7  straw  sewers,  18  milliners,  38  paste  and 
novelty  workers,  and  2  in  miscellaneous  work. 

In  1 9 10,  the  school  was  made  a  part  of  the  public 
school  system  of  New  York  City.  By  the  year 
1912,  the  enrollment  had  reached  2000.  Since 
then,  admission  has  been  granted  graduates  of 
elementary  schools,  or  girls  fourteen  years  of  age 
able  to  pass  the  work  of  the  6B  grade  in  the 
elementary  schools. 

17.  Comparison  with  Germany.  What  do 
the  10,000  or  more  young  people  who  are  being 
turned  out  annually  in  the  above  schools  have  in 
common  with  German  boys  and  girls  of  the  same 
social  class  and  purposes  in  life? 

(1)  They  are  trained  so  that  they  may  be  better 
prepared  to  make  their  livelihood  with  their  own 
hands,  and  to  become  respected  and  useful  citizens 
in  society. 

(2)  The  degree  of  training  received  in  five  of 
these  schools  is  a  full  equivalent  to  that  of  the 
three-year  industrial  continuation  school,  while 
the  curriculum  in  the  other  eleven  schools  cor- 
responds more  nearly  to  the  average  German  lower 
trade  school.  Of  the  sixteen  schools  under  consid- 
eration, three  required  the  pupils  to  be  sixteen 
years  old;  one,  at  least  twelve  and  one-half;  one, 
between  fifteen  and  twenty;  one,  fourteen  to  seven- 


Endowed  Schools  195 

teen;  one,  ten  to  fourteen;  and  three  required  at 
least  a  grammar  school  education,  which  under 
American  conditions  would  make  the  candidates 
for  admission  fifteen  years  of  age  or  more.  Most 
of  the  pupils  of  the  remaining  eight  schools  were 
already  engaged  in  learning  a  definite  trade,  which 
is  not  usually  undertaken  before  the  seventeenth 
year  of  age.  A  careful  survey  of  the  above  sit- 
uation in  regard  to  the  age  of  the  pupils  and  their 
educational  qualification,  reinforces  very  strongly 
the  conclusions  arrived  at  in  the  first  chapter  as 
a  result  of  our  comparison  of  the  respective 
standards  of  the  German  and  American  public 
schools. 

(3)  Taken  all  in  all,  the  educational  qualifica- 
tions of  pupils  entering  the  American  schools  are 
about  the  same  as  those  required  in  the  German 
industrial  continuation  school,1  though  it  is  safe 
to  say  that  the  students  entering  the  latter  group 
of  institutions  are  two  years  or  more  older  than 
the  pupils  in  America2  who  are  pursuing  the  same 
courses. 

1  To  a  certain  extent  the  New  York  Trade  School,  Pratt  In- 
stitute, Drexel  Institute,  and  Cooper  Union  present  some  excep- 
tions to  (2)  and  (3),  in  that  the  previous  educational  preparation 
of  a  certain  percentage  of  their  students  is  better  than  the  Ger- 
man public  school  standard  requires,  and  their  purposes  and 
ambitions  and  the  length  of  their  trade  course  compare  more 
nearly  to  corresponding  features  of  the  higher  trade  schools  of 
Germany. 

3  Another  class  of  endowed  schools  might  properly  be  put 
into  the  list  already  presented.  We  refer  to  such  institutions 
for  negroes  as  Hampton  Institute  in  Virginia,  and  the  Tuskegee 


196    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

Despite  these  likenesses,  we  are  impressed  by 
the  contrast  rather  than  by  the  similarity,  pre- 
sented by  these  sixteen  institutions  to  the  German 
industrial  schools.  The  establishment  of  an  ag- 
gregate of  $16,978,000  as  endowments  toward 
elementary  industrial  education  in  a  little  more 
than  two  decades  stands  without  a  parallel  in 
the  history  of  the  German  industrial  schools !  The 
explanation  must  be  sought  in  the  fact  that  the 
economic  and  social  state  of  society  is  entirely 
different. 

Normal  and  Industrial  Institute  in  Alabama.  The  former  was 
founded  during  the  Civil  War,  and  the  latter  in  1881.  The 
purpose  of  these  schools  was  directed  more  toward  solving  a 
race  question  than  an  industrial  problem.  Their  curricula  per- 
tain only  in  part  to  our  present  thesis,  as  a  large  number  of 
the  students  pursue  academic  studies,  while  perhaps  one- third 
study  farming.  The  work  done  in  both  these  schools  has  made  a 
national  impression  and  has  done  more  than  any  other  one  cause 
to  raise  the  black  race  in  the  estimation  of  the  public.  They  have 
also  served  as  excellent  models  for  similar  schools.  The  schools 
which  are  now  being  rapidly  established  in  the  South  have  many 
visitors,  not  only  from  all  parts  of  the  Union,  but  from  foreign 
countries  also. 

The  following  statement  will  give  a  more  definite  idea  of  the 
greater  of  these  two  schools: 

The  Tuskegee  Institute  has  more  than  $1,000,000  in  equipment, 
live  stock,  and  personal  property,  and  more  than  a  million  and 
a  half  dollars  in  endowment.  The  total  enrollment  in  the  regular 
Normal  and  Industrial  departments  in  1908  was  1587.  This 
included  representatives  from  thirty-six  states,  and  seven  foreign 
countries,  of  whom  1093  were  young  men  and  527  young  women. 
This  enrollment  did  not  include  490  students  in  the  "Short 
Course"  in  agriculture. 

It  is  in  order  to  add  that  the  head  of  this  school  is  the  celebrated 
Booker  T.  Washington,  who  spent  his  early  days  in  slavery. 


Endowed  Schools  197 

(1)  The  chances  to  accumulate  immense  for- 
tunes, to  rise  from  poverty  to  the  possession  of 
millions,  to  pass  from  log  cabin  to  a  seat  in  Con- 
gress, are  all  not  infrequent  incidents  in  American 
history.  Germany  has  little  that  can  compare 
with  such  strides  of  individual  advancement. 

(2)  Many  of  the  richest  men  in  the  United 
States  were  once  poor  boys  and  retained  the  keen- 
est sympathy  for  the  poor  but  industrious,  honest 
young  men  and  women  who  are  struggling  for  a 
place  in  life.  Some  of  these  men  were  so  active 
making  money  that  at  the  close  of  life  they  really 
had  a  problem  to  determine  what  to  do  with  their 
accumulation.  As  neither  they  nor  their  imme- 
diate family  were  accustomed  to  the  extravagance 
and  luxury  which  the  possession  of  wealth  brings 
in  time,  the  thought  naturally  arose  to  return  the 
fortune  to  such  ambitious  boys  and  girls  as  their 
own  childhood  days  had  known.  More  than 
sixty  per  cent,  of  the  money  given  to  these  schools 
came  from  five  men  who,  in  boyhood,  had  been 
poor.  These  men  expressly  stated  in  their  wills 
that  the  need  for  such  education,  which  they  had 
personally  experienced  in  their  youth,  prompted 
their  establishing  such  a  school. 

(3)  In  the  United  States  the  custom  of  founding 
literary  institutions  by  endowment  has  long  been 
in  vogue;  hence  it  was  easier  to  bridge  over  to  the 
idea  of  establishing  in  the  same  way,  industrial 
schools.  In  Germany  the  people  look  to  the 
State  as  the  initiating  agency  of  schools.     The 


198    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

German  population  as  a  whole  has  much  more 
paternal  conceptions  regarding  everything  than 
has  the  American.  Public  opinion  in  the  two 
countries  differs  widely  on  such  questions. 

(4)  In  Germany  wealth  has  been  in  certain 
families  for  many  generations.  Society  is  well 
stratified  and  class  lines  are  closely  drawn.  Rich 
families  have  become  fully  accustomed  to  wealth 
and  the  ease  in  life  which  it  brings.  The  activities 
of  such  families  are  engaged  equally  as  much  in 
spending  as  in  earning. 

(5)  The  difference  in  the  attitude  of  the  two 
countries  toward  educational  opportunities  for 
girls  is  well  reflected  in  the  nature  of  these  endow- 
ments. Quite  as  much  has  been  devoted  to  the 
girls  as  to  the  boys  in  America,  when  one  takes 
into  consideration  the  proportion  of  each  sex 
represented  in  industry. 


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199 


XI 


SCHOOLS  ESTABLISHED  BY  STATE  AID  AND  APPRO- 
PRIATIONS FROM  THE  MUNICIPALITY 

i.  Textile  Schools.  The  Centennial  Exhibition 
of  1876  awakened  an  interest  in  art  and  art  educa- 
tion that  resulted  in  the  organization  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania Museum  and  the  School  of  Industrial 
Art. *  The  purpose  of  the  school,  as  stated  in  the 
Charter,  is  to  establish  "for  the  State  of  Pennsyl- 
vania a  Museum  of  Art  in  all  its  branches  and 
technical  applications,  and  with  a  special  view 
to  the  development  of  the  Art  industries  of  the 
State,  to  provide  instruction  in  Drawing,  Paint- 
ing, Modeling,  Designing,  etc.,  through  practical 
schools,  special  libraries,  lectures  and  otherwise." 
The  school  was  devoted  to  these  subjects  during 
the  first  few  years  of  its  history  with  a  constant 
regard  to  industrial  needs  but  without  attempting 
to  provide  instruction  in  actual  craftsmanship 
of  any  kind.  The  necessity  for  providing  such 
instruction  became  apparent  very  early. 

During  the  first  ten  years  of  its  existence  the  School 
was  supported  entirely  by  the  dues  of  subscribing 

1  Miller,  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy,  vol.  xxiii.,  No. 
1,  p.  no. 

200 


State  and  Municipal  Aid  201 

members,  the  gifts  of  public-spirited  individuals,  and 
the  funds  raised  in  various  ways  by  the  trustees  and 
an  untiring  associate  committee  of  women,  supple- 
mented by  a  very  small  endowment  and  the  always 
insignificant  amount  derived  from  tuition  fees.  In 
1887  the  State  Legislature  made  an  appropriation  of 
$5,000  a  year,  which  amount  has  been  gradually 
increased  with  the  growth  of  the  school  until  it  now 
amounts  to  $50,000.  Since  1881,  the  City  of  Phila- 
delphia has  also  granted,  through  the  park  commission, 
some  support  for  the  Museum  in  Memorial  Hall,  and 
since  1896  it  has  made  direct  appropriations  to  the 
school, — amounting  at  present  to  $25,000  a  year — and 
has  provided  through  the  board  of  education  for  a  sys- 
tem of  free  scholarships  for  pupils  of  the  public  schools. 

The  school  is  for  both  sexes.  It  maintains  both 
day  and  evening  classes.  It  has  a  staff  of  thirty-nine 
instructors,  and  its  enrollment  amounts  to  a  little 
over  1000.  The  work  in  which  it  was  so  early  a  leader 
is  still  in  the  first  stages  of  its  development,  but  it  has 
already  accomplished  enough  to  demonstrate  the 
utility  of  an  education  that  concerns  itself  entirely 
with  practical  aims.  It  can  point  to  nearly  1500 
former  pupils,  who  have  achieved  positions  in  the 
industrial  world,  more  or  less  distinguished  but  always 
honorable  because  helpful.  The  school  certainly  has 
produced  upon  the  life  of  this,  the  typical  industrial 
city  of  America,  an  impression  as  beneficent  as  it  is 
profound. 

The  school  can  now  lay  claim  to  an  equipment  ex- 
celling that  of  any  similar  institution.  The  numerous 
machines  and  appliances  have  been  added  from  time 
to  time  as  their  necessity  became  apparent.  Wher- 
ever it  was  seen  that  a  new  apparatus  would  assist  in 


202    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

the  demonstration  of  a  subject,  that  apparatus  was 
obtained,  and  where  an  improvement  was  made  in 
machinery  already  in  the  school,  either  that  improve- 
ment was  attached  or  the  old  machine  was  replaced 
by  an  entirely  new  one. 

The  most  important  of  all  these  practical  depart- 
ments is  the  School  of  Textile  Design  and  Manu- 
facture, which  was  organized  in  1884.  It  owes 
its  existence  to  the  efforts  of  many  of  the  most 
energetic  and  influential  members  of  the  Phila- 
delphia Textile  Association.  No  school  of  the 
kind  existed  in  the  country,  and  there  were,  con- 
sequently, neither  precedents  for  organization 
nor  trained  instructors  available.  The  manu- 
facturers knew  only  that  they  were  being  beaten  in 
their  home  markets,  protective  tariff  and  all,  and 
they  realized  that  nothing  would  save  them  but  the 
cultivation  at  home  of  the  kind  of  skill  upon  which 
the  success  of  their  European  rivals  depended. 

Not  only  had  the  number  of  mills  increased  in 
number,  but  also  in  size;  hence  there  was  a  cor- 
responding development  of  division  of  labor  and 
specialization  of  production.  This  specialization 
had  gone  so  far  that  it  became  virtually  impossible 
to  obtain  in  the  typical  modern  mill  a  general 
comprehensive  knowledge  of  the  business  as  a 
whole;  hence  young  men  seeking  such  knowledge 
were  obliged  to  secure  it  elsewhere.  Under  such 
circumstances  the  textile  school  came  into  exist- 
ence to  meet  the  advancing  requirements  of  the 
textile  trade,  and  thereby  prevent  waste  of  effort 


State  and  Municipal  Aid  203 

in  unprofitable  routine,  and  to  economize  effort 
by  properly  directing  it. 

Besides  the  above  causes  favoring  the  estab- 
lishment of  such  schools  throughout  the  country, 
there  were  special  reasons  urging  their  foundation 
in  the  New  England  States. 

(a)  Foreign  mills  could  produce  and  sell  the 
higher  grades  of  cloth  and  the  finest  grades  of 
woolen  and  worsted  goods  cheaper  than  they  could 
be  produced  or  sold  in  the  United  States. 

(b)  The  mills  in  the  Southern  States  could 
produce  the  cheap  grades  of  cloth  at  less  cost 
than  could  the  Northern  mills;  hence  the  industry 
in  these  States  was  threatened  by  competition 
both  at  home  and  abroad. 

This  last  point  has  special  significance  in  con- 
nection with  the  great  effort  made  by  the  State 
of  Massachusetts  to  keep  her  industries  from 
moving  to  the  South. 

In  1895,  the  textile  interests  of  the  State  of 
Massachusetts  secured  the  following  law : 

Section  i.  In  any  city  of  this  Commonwealth 
whose  mayor  shall,  on  or  before  the  first  day  of  July 
in  the  year  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety-five,  file  a 
certificate  with  the  commissioner  of  corporations  that 
said  city  has  in  operation  four  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  or  more  spindles,  not  less  than  nor  more 
than  twenty  persons,  citizens  of  this  Common- 
wealth, may  associate  themselves  together  by  an 
agreement  in  writing  for  the  purpose  of  establish- 
ing and  maintaining  a  textile  school  for  instruction 


204    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

in  the  theory  and  practical  art  of  textile  and  kin- 
dred branches  of  industry,  with  authority  to  take,  by 
gift  or  purchase,  and  hold  personal  or  real  estate  to 
the  amount  of  three  hundred  thousand  dollars.  A 
copy  of  said  agreement  and  of  the  signatures  thereto, 
sworn  to  by  any  one  of  the  subscribers,  shall  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  governor,  and  if  he  shall  certify  his 
approval  of  the  associates  as  suitable  for  the  purposes 
of  their  association  and  of  this  act,  said  associates 
shall,  for  said  purposes,  after  due  and  proper  organiza- 
tion by  the  adoption  of  by-laws  and  the  election  of 
officers,  and  after  filing  a  certificate  of  such  organiza- 
tion and  the  certificate  of  the  approval  of  the  gover- 
nor with  the  secretary  of  the  Commonwealth,  be  and 
remain  a  corporation,  with  all  powers  and  privileges 
and  subject  to  all  the  duties  and  obligations  of  cor- 
porations organized  for  educational  purposes  under 
chapter  one  hundred  and  fifteen  of  the  Public  Statutes. 
Said  corporation  shall  be  known  as  the  Trustees  of  the 
Textile  School  of  the  place  in  which  it  is  located,  and 
shall  have  power  to  fill  vacancies  in  their  number, 
however  occurring,  except  as  otherwise  provided  in 
this  act.  There  shall  be  only  one  school  incorporated 
under  the  provisions  of  this  act  in  one  city. 

Section  2 .  Any  city  in  which  such  a  corporation  is 
organized  may  appropriate  and  pay  to  said  corpora- 
tion a  sum  of  money  not  to  exceed,  in  any  case,  the 
sum  of  twenty-five  thousand  dollars,  and  upon  the  ap- 
propriation and  payment  of  said  sum  of  money  or  any 
part  thereof  by  any  such  city,  the  mayor  and  superin- 
tendent of  schools  of  such  city,  for  the  time  being,  shall 
be,  and  become  members  of  said  corporation,  and  the 
mayor  and  superintendent  of  schools  of  such  city 
shall  thereafter  be  members  of  such  corporation. 


State  and  Municipal  Aid  205 

Section  3.  Whenever  any  such  city  shall  appro- 
priate and  pay  to  any  such  corporation  any  sum  of 
money,  or  whenever  the  trustees  or  members  of  any 
such  corporation  shall  pay  into  its  treasury,  for  the 
purposes  of  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of 
such  school,  any  sum  of  money,  there  shall  be  appro- 
priated and  paid  to  said  corporation  from  the  treasury 
of  the  Commonwealth  a  sum  of  money  equal  to  the 
total  amount  thus  appropriated  and  paid;  but  in  no 
case  shall  there  be  paid  to  any  such  corporation  by 
the  Commonwealth  any  sum  of  money  exceeding 
twenty-five  thousand  dollars,  and  upon  the  appropri- 
ation and  payment  of  any  sum  of  money  by  the  Com- 
monwealth for  the  purposes  of  any  such  school,  the 
governor  shall,  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
council,  appoint  two  persons  to  be  members  and 
trustees  of  any  such  corporation  for  two  and  four 
years  respectively,  and  thereafter,  such  persons  and 
their  successors  by  similar  appointment  shall  be  and 
remain  members  of  said  corporation.  The  governor 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  council,  shall  fill 
all  vacancies,  however  occurring,  in  the  membership 
created  by  this  section. 

Section  4.  This  act  shall  take  effect  upon  its 
passage.     (Approved  June  5,  1895.) 

The  first  school  organized  under  the  law  was 
the  Lowell  Textile  School.  The  following  figures 
are  taken  from  the  Trustees'  Report  of  1908. 

Cost  of  maintenance $  66,000 

Value  of  land 105,639 

Value  of  buildings 240,000 

Value  of  equipment 210,000 


206    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

The  School  boasts  of  the  most  varied  equipment 
of  any  similar  institution  in  either  Europe  or 
America.  The  raw  stock  is  converted  within  the 
School  into  the  finished  fabric.  January  i,  1909, 
there  were  enrolled  173  students  in  the  day  classes, 
and  505  in  the  evening  classes.  Of  the  day  students, 
149  had  completed  the  high  school  course.  Nearly 
all  the  rest  had  had  courses  in  advance  of  this 
standard.  The  evening  classes  are  intended  for 
those  who  are  employed  during  the  day.  These 
courses  enable  those  enrolled  in  them  to  perfect 
their  knowledge  of  the  branches  in  which  they 
work,  and  to  acquire  knowledge  of  other  processes 
than  those  in  which  they  are  regularly  engaged. 
The  entrance  requirements  are  not  nearly  so  high 
as  for  the  day  classes,  and  the  aims  of  the  courses 
are  more  moderate. 

The  Lowell  School  again  gives  a  fairly  represen- 
tative standard  of  the  previous  educational  at- 
tainment before  entering  the  textile  schools.  Of 
the  505  pupils  in  the  evening  classes  at  Lowell  in 
1908,  234  had  only  completed  the  grammar  school 
and  170  the  high  school.  All  others  were  above 
this  standard,  and  some  had  had  a  college 
training. 

The  cost  of  tuition  varies.  In  Lowell  it  is  $100 
per  year  for  day  pupils  who  are  residents  of 
Massachusetts,  $150  for  non-residents  of  the  State, 
and  $300  for  foreigners. 

New  Bedford  charges  no  fee  for  residents  of  the 
city.     Pupils  from  the  State  pay  $50  a  year,  and 


State  and  Municipal  Aid  207 

those  coming  from  States  or  regions  outside  of  the 
State  pay  $150  a  year. 

At  Fall  River  no  tuition  fee  is  charged  to  resi- 
dents of  the  State.     Non-residents  pay  $150  a  year. 

So  far  no  uniformity  has  existed  among  the 
several  schools  in  respect  to  tuition  rates,  methods 
of  organization,  or  management.  Thus  it  is  not 
possible  to  compare  these  institutions  as  a  whole 
with  the  German  textile  schools. 

The  Massachusetts  Commission  on  Industrial 
Education  recommended  that  no  tuition  be  charged 
in  any  of  the  schools,  provided  the  student  is  a 
resident  of  the  State,  and  that  in  the  case  of  stu- 
dents outside  of  the  State,  the  tuition  fee  be  high 
enough  to  cover  the  cost  of  instruction.  The 
Commission  furthermore  showed  the  necessity 
for  uniform  control  of  the  textile  schools  in  other 
particulars  as  well.  To  take  an  example,  one 
school  had  a  large  debt,  another  a  substantial  sum 
in  the  treasury.  The  systems  of  accounting  were 
so  different  that  the  Commission  itself  could  not 
compare  the  conditions  of  the  schools  with  any 
degree  of  exactness.  When  such  differences  obtain 
among  schools  in  the  same  State,  one  can  readily 
appreciate  how  futile  would  be  the  attempt  at  a 
comparison  with  German  textile  schools.  In 
Germany,  too,  the  greatest  diversity  exists  in  the 
management  of  this  type  of  school.    (See  page  123.) 

2.  Technical  Schools.  The  Newark  Technical 
School  has  for  its  object  in  all  departments  the  ad- 


208    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

vancement  of  the  manufacturing  interests  of  the  City 
and  State  in  the  line  of  technical  and  industrial 
education. 

It  is  the  aim  of  the  management  that  the  instruc- 
tion given  shall  be  of  practical  value  to  all  sections  of 
the  community,  and  students  will  be  taught  scientific 
principles  which  can  be  applied  in  their  occupations. 

The  School  was  organized  in  1885,  in  accordance 
with  the  law  of  March  24,  1881,  which  gives  to  any 
city,  town,  or  township,  from  three  to  seven  thousand 
dollars  annually,  provided  said  city,  town,  or  township 
furnishes  an  equal  amount.  The  City  of  Newark  ap- 
propriates ten  thousand  dollars  annually,  the  support 
of  the  School  depending  on  these  two  appropriations, 
amounting  to  seventeen  thousand  dollars. 

In  order  to  meet  what  seems  to  be  a  demand  for 
instruction  with  reference  to  a  particular  trade,  a 
course  of  study  for  machinists  has  been  organized, 
the  instruction  being  confined  to  the  technical  side, 
assuming  that  all  who  would  take  up  the  course  had 
either  already  had  practical  experience  at  the  trade, 
or  were  being  taught  in  shops  as  apprentices. ' 

Applicants  for  admission  to  the  first  year  class 
must  be  at  least  sixteen  years  of  age,  of  good  moral 
character,  and  must  pass  a  satisfactory  examina- 
tion in  arithmetic  and  in  algebra  as  far  as  factor- 
ing, or  present  a  certificate  of  graduation  from  a 
grammar  school. 

The  following  table  gives  the  courses  taught 
and  the  enrollment  for  1908-09: 

1  Catalogue  of  iqo8-oq,  p.  7. 


State  and  Municipal  Aid  209 

Number  of  Students,  Newark  Technical  School 

General  course 177 

Electrical  course 14 

Electrical  wiring  course 42 

Electroplating  course 5 

Building  construction  course 7 

Jewelry  and  silverware  course 15 

Machinist  course 28 

Special  students  in  drawing 46 

Plumbing  course 7 

Total 341 

The  full  course  requires  five  years,  upon  the 
completion  of  which  a  diploma  is  awarded. 

Two  more  schools  have  been  established  under 
this  law,  the  school  at  Hoboken  (1888)  and  the 
Trenton  School  of  Industrial  Arts  (1898).  The 
Hoboken  School  offers  instruction  during  the  day, 
chiefly  to  the  boys  and  girls  of  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades  of  the  public  schools.  The  Trenton 
School  gives  instruction  almost  entirely  in  the 
evening  to  those  who  are  at  work  during  the  day. 
The  economic  value  of  the  industrial  training 
seems  to  be  proven  by  the  enhanced  monetary 
returns  secured  by  the  students  in  these  schools. 
For  illustration,  it  is  said  that  the  average  gradu- 
ate of  the  Newark  Technical  School  has  added  an 
income  of  one  thousand  dollars  per  annum  to  his 
earning  capacity  above  that  which  he  would  have 
had  if  he  had  not  attended  the  evening  school. 

3.    Economic  Importance  of  Textile  Schools. 

The  increase  of  value  that  results  from  skill  and 
science  is  well  illustrated  by  the  following  citations  : 
14 


210    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

As  an  example  of  the  increase  in  value  which  skill 
and  science  will  give  in  the  textile  industries,  it  may 
be  stated,  as  being  approximately  true,  that  a  pound 
of  raw  cotton  worth  10  cents  will,  when  made  into 
ordinary  cloth,  be  worth  19  or  20  cents,  into  better 
cloth  $1,  and  when  made  into  the  finest  grade  of  mull, 
ornamental  in  design  and  color,  it  will  be  worth  from 
$8  to  $12. " 

From  the  November  bulletin  of  the  Lowell 
School  we  have  the  following : 

Results  of  a  recent  canvas  of  the  Alumni  lead  to  the 
belief  that  nearly  60  per  cent,  of  the  graduates  from 
the  day  classes  are  receiving  a  salary  of  over  $1000 
a  year;  20  per  cent,  are  receiving  $2000  and  over, 
with  some  cases  of  $4000,  $5000,  and  $7000  salaries. 
The  first  graduate  has  not  yet  been  out  from  school 
ten  years. 

For  additional  proof  note  the  causes  that  led  to 
the  establishment  of  these  schools.  (See  page 
203.) 

1  Report  of  Commissioner  of  Labor ;  1902,  p.  140. 


XII 

SCHOOLS  ESTABLISHED  BY  CHARITY 

WE  notice  the  trade  school  idea  taking  root 
in  the  larger  cities  as  a  form  of  charity. 
Many  of  the  most  successful  schools  under  this 
head  were  organized  at  first  as  a  mere  attempt  to 
amuse  the  boys  and  girls,  bind  them  together, 
and  keep  them  off  the  streets.  In  search  for  some 
form  of  healthful  and  profitable  amusement,  the 
instigators  and  leaders  of  these  little  bands 
became  more  and  more  impressed  with  the  idea 
of  teaching  trades.  Some  of  these  schools  have 
grown  to  such  importance  that  their  work  con- 
stitutes a  salient  influence  in  the  lives  of  the  young 
men  and  women  of  the  localities  in  which  the 
institutions  are  established. 

The  widest  diversity  exists  in  the  form  and  the 
content  of  the  curriculums,  the  age  at  which  pupils 
enter,  and  the  character  and  competency  of  the 
instruction.  Not  infrequently  social  features  are 
added  to  the  work  of  these  schools,  which  affect 
not  only  the  life  of  the  pupils,  but  bring  about  in 
the  whole  community  a  moral  and  intellectual 
awakening. 

As  would  be  expected  from  the  very  object  of 

211 


212    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

the  schools  and  the  impecuniousness  of  the  pupils 
that  attend  them,  the  tuition  is  in  nearly  all  cases 
either  entirely  gratuitous  or  subject  only  to  a 
nominal  charge.  The  expenses  are  defrayed  by 
the  churches  or  by  the  society  membership,  unless, 
as  is  frequently  the  case,  some  one  individual  in 
the  community  makes  himself  the  patron  of  the 
school  and  assumes  the  larger  part  of  the  current 
expense.  One  finds  instances  of  the  teaching 
being  conducted  as  a  side  issue  by  men  and  women 
who  have  other  regular  employment,  but  who 
choose  to  give  a  certain  part  of  their  time  to 
charity. 

Twelve  or  fifteen  of  the  more  important  schools 
are  of  this  type,  with  a  combined  property  valua- 
tion exceeding  $200,000,  and  an  annual  expense  of 
more  than  $40,000. 

A  need  for  schools  of  this  character  to  which 
negroes  might  have  access  was  strongly  felt. 
Charity  employment  bureaus  found  many  cases 
in  which  race  prejudice  operated  against  the  negro's 
securing  work,  and  to  help  the  black  man  over- 
come this  obstacle  was  the  chief  motive  in  estab- 
lishing schools  for  colored  pupils,  thereby  making 
their  labor  more  valuable  and  placing  it  in  greater 
demand. 

Aside  from  the  special  problems  which  the  negro 
question  brings  into  the  establishment  of  these 
schools,  one  readily  observes  that  the  origin  of 
the  schools,  the  method  by  which  they  are  main- 
tained, the  character  of  their  pupils,  the  spirit 


Schools  Established  by  Charity    213 

of  the  teachers,  and  the  channels  into  which  they 
are  leading,  all  bear  the  closest  resemblance  to 
the  general  continuation  schools  of  the  first  three- 
quarters  of  a  century  in  Germany.  In  nearly 
every  respect  the  comparison  is  preserved  most 
strikingly. 

The  chief  contribution  made  by  these  schools 
to  the  movement  now  on  foot  in  the  United  States 
is  that  they  emphasize  the  great  need  for  such 
schools,  and  demonstrate  that  money  and  time 
spent  upon  their  establishment  pays  rich  returns 
to  the  communities  in  which  such  schools  exist. 
They  have  proved  to  be  valuable  experimental 
stations  in  devising  new  means  of  curing  the  ills 
of  society.  Society  learned  a  new  way  of  making 
roses  blossom  and  bloom,  where  formerly  only 
thorns  grew  and  flourished. 

The  appended  table  exemplifies  briefly  the 
characteristics  which  we  have  just  described. 


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XIII 


THE  YOUNG  MEN'S  CHRISTIAN  ASSOCIATION  SCHOOLS 


THE  Y.  M.  C.  A.  is  a  well-known  auxiliary 
organization  of  the  Protestant  churches. 
The  justification  of  its  origin  and  rapid  growth 
may  be  attributed  to  the  fact  that  churches  were 
too  slow  in  adapting  themselves  to  the  new  social, 
economic,  and  educational  necessities  of  the  age; 
hence  this  new  body,  with  more  life  and  less  for- 
mality, and  organized  and  built  right  into  the 
social  situation  as  it  is  at  present,  has  met  with 
such  marvelous  success. 

This  movement  has  as  its  goal,  several  distinct 
objects,  but  the  industrial  educational  side  is  the 
only  one  that  concerns  us  here.  In  that  capacity 
it  aims  to  help  an  army  of  7,000,000  men  and  boys, 
as  far  as  it  is  possible,  to  enroll  them  in  association 
work,  to  improve  their  condition,  and  increase 
their  efficiency  in  trade,  commerce,  and  indus- 
try. As  six-sevenths  of  the  boys  ten  years  of 
age  leave  school  before  they  are  fourteen,  there 
is  great  need  for  supplementing  the  public  school 
work,  since  the  years  from  twelve  to  eighteen 
are  largely   wasted.      The  following   table   tells 

215 


216    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

the  story  in  figures  of   the  development  of  the 
Y.M.C.A.1 


Development  of  Y.  M.  C.  A.  Educational  Courses 


1892 

1900 

1907 

1908 

Different  students 

15,000 

25,900 

42,170 

44,591 

Paid  teachers 

500 

998 

2,052 

2,100 

Attendance  at  lectures 

and  talks 

11,000 

37,600 

282,000 



Educational  club  mem- 

bers 

4,500 

5.700 

13,600 



Special  vocational 

courses 



12 

67 



Associations  with   local 

supervision 



18 

46 

54 

Tuition  receipts 

$38,000 

$268,000 

$323,827 

Total  expenses 

$60,000 

$172,000 

$438,000 

$506,900 

In  1909  there  were  about  48,000  students. 

The  following  information  was  furnished  by  the 
National  Secretary  in  March,  19 14. 

At  present  over  $1,000,000  is  spent  annually  on 
conducting  educational  facilities  for  employed  men 
and  boys.  The  tuition  receipts  from  these  students 
cover  about  71  per  cent,  of  the  total  expense,  the 
membership  fees  cover  25  per  cent,  more  of  the  ex- 
pense, leaving  about  4  per  cent,  to  be  raised  in  vol- 
untary contributions. 

1  "These  figures  represent  the  work  of  Canada,  Mexico  and 
the  United  States.  It  can  be  said,  however,  that  Mexico's  repre- 
sentation is  very  small  and  practically  all  the  work  in  Canada 
is  of  a  commercial  and  academic  character  with  a  few  exceptions. 
This  would  have  the  tendency,  therefore,  of  increasing  the  prob- 
able proportion  of  work  of  an  industrial  and  trade  character  to 
the  total  amount  of  work  in  the  United  States." 


V.  M.  C  A.  Schools  217 

The  work  includes  (a)  reading  rooms  and  libraries 
in  which  $100,000  was  spent  annually  and  700,000 
books  carefully  read,  besides  all  the  standard  periodi- 
cals and  magazines,  (b)  Lectures  and  practical  talks. 
Over  12,000  such  are  given  each  year  attended  by 
over  600,000  men  and  boys,  (c)  About  100  different 
kinds  of  educational  clubs  for  research,  study  and 
discussion  with  23,000  as  members,  (d)  2,700  paid 
teachers  give  instruction  in  over  120  definite  courses 
of  study,  to  76,000  men  and  boys.  This  is  all  class 
work,  no  correspondence  work. 

Robert  T.  Hill,  one  of  the  international  secre- 
taries, informs  me  that  about  40  per  cent,  of  the 
present  student  enrollment  are  pursuing  industrial 
science  and  trade  courses,  30  per  cent,  commercial 
and  trade  subjects,  possibly  about  15  per  cent, 
language  and  academic  subjects,  and  the  remaining 
15  per  cent,  special  vocational  subjects  such  as 
real  estate,  salesmanship,  advertising,  etc. 

The  educational  privileges  are  adapted  to  meet 
local  needs.  Sessions  are  held  either  by  day  or  by 
night,  and  within  or  outside  association  build- 
ings. In  cities,  men  and  boys  from  all  walks  of 
life  receive  aid  in  any  of  the  various  grades  of 
work  that  will  best  forward  their  advancement. 
Thousands  of  railroad  men  receive  definite  practi- 
cal aid  and  training.  In  industrial  and  manu- 
facturing plants  special  technical  training  is 
emphasized. 

As  the  table  indicates,  more  than  50  per  cent, 
of  the  expense  is  defrayed  through  the  tuition 


218    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

fees  of  the  students.  The  remainder  is  made  up  by 
the  churches  and  by  voluntary  subscriptions.  The 
employers  have  shown  a  special  interest  in  this 
work  by  paying  a  portion  or  all  of  their  employees' 
tuition,  and  by  helping  provide  equipment  from 
the  shops.  In  selecting  the  teaching  force,  practi- 
cal experience  is  given  especial  recognition.  As 
we  have  already  observed  in  our  survey  of  the 
German  schools,  students  of  the  workmen  type 
have  more  respect  for  the  practical,  successful 
manufacturer  or  artisan  than  for  the  merely 
scholastic  and  theoretically  trained  teacher. 

A  conflict  in  national  ideals  comes  to  a  stronger 
focus  in  this  type  of  school  than  in  any  other  that 
we  shall  present  in  this  thesis. 

First,  the  fostering  spirit  of  these  schools  lies 
primarily  in  a  systematic  and  widespread  phil- 
anthropy. People  earn  their  money  compara- 
tively easily,  and  they  like  to  give.  "The  Lord 
loveth  the  cheerful  giver' '  is  the  nation's  watch- 
word. 

Second,  the  Nation  has  often  been  accused  of 
its  "greed  for  the  Almighty  Dollar,"  and  it  must 
be  admitted  there  is  much  truth  in  the  charge. 
There  is  a  powerful  tendency  to  "commercialize" 
everything,  to  go  into  a  proposition  for  "  the  money 
there  is  in  it."  It  is  already  affecting  the  schools 
and  churches,  and  it  is  hard  to  keep  this  very 
tendency  from  entering  the  gates  of  philanthropy 
itself. 

The  constant  battle  between  these  rival  forces 


Y.  M.  C  A.  Schools  219 

affects  to  a  decided  degree  the  management  and 
the  teaching  efficiency  of  these  schools.  It  comes 
about  in  this  way :  Since  these  schools  represent 
in  their  origin,  purpose,  and  management  the 
motives  and  noblest  impulses  of  charity,  it  is 
impossible  that  the  leading  teachers  should  be  men 
who  feel  that  the  salary  is  the  index  of  their  worth 
and  their  standing  in  the  community.  It  is 
impossible  to  have  charity  at  the  bottom  of  an 
organization,  and  an  ideal  that  recognizes  its  use- 
fulness in  "dollars  and  cents"  at  the  top.  But 
this  is  the  very  standard  of  measurement  with 
which  these  schools  are  constantly  threatened. 
There  is  a  very  prevalent  tendency  to  measure  the 
worth  of  a  teacher  by  the  salary  he  gets.  A  man 
of  great  ability  might  be  inclined  by  his  own  nature 
to  work  faithfully  for  a  small  salary  in  a  good  cause, 
yet  being  confronted  constantly  by  the  feeling 
that  his  neighbors  judge  his  work  by  the  remu- 
neration he  receives,  he  is  ever  tempted  to  look  to 
financial  ends  in  order  to  get  a  just  social  recogni- 
tion. How  different  are  conditions  in  Germany! 
There  a  man  may  be  engaged  in  work  that  pays 
practically  nothing,  and  yet  occupy  a  most  excel- 
lent social  position,  because  his  salary  is  not  made 
the  chief  factor  in  estimating  his  worth.  Besides, 
in  Germany  the  teaching  profession  has  a  distinct 
and  established  standing  that  carries  with  it  social 
recognition  irrespective  of  the  salary  paid.  This 
does  not  apply  in  the  United  States  to  anything 
like  the  same  degree. 


220    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

The  commercial  tendency  is  a  very  subtle,  but 
powerful  influence,  and  manifests  itself  in  many 
ways.  To  digress  from  the  main  subject  for  a 
moment,  it  may  be  interesting  to  illustrate  this 
more  fully  by  citing  the  fact  that  pastors  in  the 
United  States  are  judged  more  by  the  salaries 
they  get,  and  the  amounts  they  are  able  to  secure 
on  the  lecture  platform  than  by  any  other  stand- 
ard. Pastors  themselves  are  wont  to  estimate 
the  call  to  preach  in  any  particular  community 
by  the  amount  of  money  that  accompanies  it. 
This  is  not  meant  to  disparage  the  work  of  the 
pastors,  but  simply  to  show  that  they  have  gradu- 
ally been  forced  to  yield  to  a  national  ideal  that  is 
firmly  rooted  in  the  very  life  of  the  people.  In 
order  to  make  a  Yankee  feel  that  you  are  doing 
something  worth  while,  you  must  let  him  know 
that  there  is  money  in  it  somewhere,  even  though 
it  be  preaching.  It  is  no  uncommon  thing  to 
hear  preachers  who  are  collecting  money  for  foreign 
missions  argue  that  it  will  pay  financially,  because 
the  missions  raise  the  culture  of  the  natives  and 
give  them  demands  that  the  American  markets 
may  later  supply.  Perhaps  it  is  true,  but  think  of 
advancing  the  Lord's  work  by  such  propaganda! 
They  verily  believe  that  "a  little  bread  cast  upon 
the  waters  will  return  after  many  days." 

It  is  then  clear  that  as  long  as  money  is  a  factor 
of  such  importance  in  measuring  the  value  of  a 
teacher,  it  will  be  difficult  to  secure  in  adequate 
force  men  of  the  highest  competence  for  the  pur- 


Y.  M.  C  A.  Schools  221 

pose  of  giving  instruction  in  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  schools. 
In  the  effort  to  meet  this  critical  situation,  several 
bad  practices  have  been  employed.  One  is  to 
give  the  teacher  the  tuition  receipts,  thus  inviting 
him  to  recruit  for  sordid  reasons.  Another  is  to 
conduct  the  work  on  a  percentage  basis,  a  practice 
which  is  open  to  the  same  objection.  A  third  is 
to  conduct  only  those  classes  that  pay  well,  and 
add  features  that  will  become  revenue  producers. 
Before  the  school  is  aware,  it  has  passed  out  of  the 
philanthropic  group,  where  it  belongs,  and  become 
a  private  school  managed  on  a  commercial  basis. 
Though  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  schools  and  the  German 
general  continuation  schools  grew  directly  out  of 
religious  circles,  yet  their  strongest  contrast  is 
shown  in  the  mode  of  religious  observation.  Noth- 
ing that  you  can  tell  the  average  American  about 
the  German  general  continuation  schools  shocks 
him  more  than  that  they  were  originally  conducted 
almost  wholly  on  Sundays  and  religious  holidays, 
and  that  even  now  a  certain  per  cent,  of  the  work 
is  conducted  on  Sunday.  On  the  contrary, 
popular  sentiment  in  the  United  States  would  not 
allow  any  of  the  schools  that  come  under  the  dis- 
cussion of  this  thesis  to  be  in  session  on  Sunday, 
and  this  is  true  for  all  parts  of  the  country  except 
in  a  few  large  cities  where  the  foreign  population 
is  great,  and  for  all  classes  of  society.  The  Sunday 
work  is  limited  to  lectures  and  studies  of  a  reli- 
gious or  moral  character.  A  purely  scientific  lecture 
would  be  debarred. 


XIV 


YOUNG  WOMEN'S  CHRISTIAN  ASSOCIATION  SCHOOLS 


THE  Y.  W.  C.  A.  is  an  organization  parallel 
to  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  The  earliest  organiza- 
tions in  some  of  the  larger  cities  date  prior  to  1870. 
The  object  was  "to  promote  the  temporal,  social, 
mental,  moral  and  religious  welfare  of  young 
women,  particularly  those  dependent  upon  their 
own  exertions  for  support." 

Among  the  earliest  of  these  associations  to 
undertake  to  give  instruction  in  industrial  sub- 
jects may  be  mentioned  the  Woman's  Training 
School,  St.  Louis,  1882,  the  New  York  City  Y.  W. 
C.  A.  School,  1886,  and  the  Boston  Y.  W.  C.  A. 
School,  1888. 

The  establishment  of  these  schools  was  a  result 
of  the  direct  positive  evidence  of  their  necessity. 
The  associations  maintained  employment  bureaus, 
and  here  the  awful  incompetence  and  lack  of 
preparation  to  do  first-class  housework,  cooking, 
sewing,  etc.,  so  impressed  itself  that  schools  were 
established  as  the  only  means  of  making  large 
numbers  of  women  economically  independent  and 
socially  capable  of  winning  decent  respect  and 

222 


Y.  W.  C.  A.  Schools  223 

treatment  from  housekeepers  and  the  employing 
classes.  There  was  recognized,  furthermore,  the 
necessity  of  raising  the  dignity  of  labor,  and  parti- 
cularly of  casting  off  the  stigma  upon  the  work  of 
house  service. 

This  meant  that  not  only  the  servant  girl,  but 
likewise  the  housekeeper  must  be  trained.  The 
vicious  habit  of  looking  upon  servant  girls  as 
menials  and  inferiors,  and  allowing  them  so  little 
freedom,  needed  to  be  remedied.  Both  the  serv- 
ant girl  and  housekeeper  were  to  be  trained  to 
show  a  better  attitude  toward  each  other. 

The  value  of  real  estate  owned  by  the  Young 
Women's  Christian  Association  in  the  United 
States  is  four  and  one-quarter  million  dollars; 
however,  only  a  part  of  this  is  used  for  industrial 
purposes.  Some  of  the  larger  schools  are  those 
of  the  New  York  Y.  W.  C.  A.,  whose  building  is 
valued  at  $600,000  and  the  annual  cost  of  main- 
tenance of  which  is  $50,000,  the  Brooklyn  Y.  W. 
C.  A.,  whose  building  is  valued  at  $100,000  and 
the  cost  of  instruction  at  $18,000  per  annum. 

The  statistical  report  for  1908  showed  that  133 
associations  have  educational  classes,  with  an 
enrollment  of  11,624;  75  associations  have  domes- 
tic science  classes  w  th  an  enrollment  of  9529;  and 
128  associations  have  domestic  art  classes  with  an 
enrollment  of  13,218. 

The  1913  annual  report  shows  that  45,839  stu- 
dents are  included  in  day  and  evening  classes  in 
178  city  associations,  and  that  they  take  up  a  wide 


224    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

range  of  subjects, — elementary,  academic,  com- 
mercial, household  arts,  etc.  About  two-fifths 
of  the  students  are  in  day  and  three-fifths  in 
evening  classes.  In  eight  county  associations, 
which  are  a  comparatively  new  development, 
there  are  classes  and  clubs  containing  a  small  but 
growing  number  of  students. 

In  both  city  and  county  associations  the  practi- 
cal talks  promoted  by  the  association  Library 
Committee,  the  educational  or  the  physical  de- 
partment are  among  the  most  valuable  means 
used  for  the  diffusion  of  information  and  the 
creating  of  practical  ideals. 

The  budget  expenditure  for  educational  work 
in  city  Associations,  according  to  the  19 13  report, 
was  $164,487.99.  Over  three-fifths  of  the  girls 
and  women  in  the  educational  classes  are  pursu- 
ing subjects  bearing  upon  the  home  arts.  These 
women  are  from  all  walks  in  life, — some  from  in- 
dustry, many  from  business  and  professional  pur- 
suits, many  from  the  home,  some  from  the  families 
of  the  well-to-do  and  more  from  families  of 
moderate  means. 

The  national  board  is  this  year  undertaking 
special  promotion  through  appointed  commissions ; 
for  instance,  the  Social  Morality  Commission  by 
arranging  schedules  in  certain  normal  schools  and 
colleges  for  carefully  selected  speakers,  who  are 
to  give  a  series  of  lectures  to  women  students  on 
social   morality. 

This  is  the  list  of  the  subjects  taught : 


Y.  W.  C.  A.  Schools 


225 


Number  of  Y.  W.  C.  A.'S  Giving  Various  Courses1 

Educational 

Classes  in   art  in  13     Associations 

china  painting  "  14 

water  color  "  12 

arts  and  crafts  "  45 

German  "  53 

French  "56 

Italian  "  2 

Latin  "  2 

Spanish  "  15 

Swedish  "  1 

Esperanto  "  3 

English  for  foreigners        "  21 

literature  "  58 

reading  "  11 

penmanship  "  12 

arithmetic  "  25 

spelling  "  12 

geography  "  1 

grammar,  rhetoric,  etc.     "  64 

history  "  4 

physics  "  2 

physiology  "  5 

elocution  "  33 

stenography  "  32 

bookkeeping  "  12 

telegraphy  "  1 

business  "  6 

instrumental  music  "  11 

orchestra  "  7 

music  "  16 

vocal  "  8 

choral  "  24 

parliamentary  law  "  2 

nature  study  "  2 

etiquette  M  2 

manicuring  "  4 

book  review  "  3 

travels  "  6 

current  topics  "  7 

art  of  conversation  "  1 

massage  "  1 

Domestic  Science 
Classes  reported  in 

chemistry  and  food  properties  in  2     Associations 

cooking  "  58               " 


From  statistics  of  March,  1909. 


226    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 


Domestic  Science 

dietetics                                                  in     3     A 

ssocia 

domestic  service 

1     1 

" 

first  aid  to  injured 

*     3 

u 

home  nursing                                            ' 

*    17 

" 

housekeeping                                            ' 

'    10 

11 

household  economics                              ' 

'      1 

11 

invalid  cooking 

'     5 

«< 

kitchen  garden 

'     1 

11 

laundry 

1     2 

" 

nursing 

4     2 

sanitation 

4     1 

11 

serving 

4     9 

<< 

trained  attendant 

'    10 

11 

Domestic  Art 

Classes  reported  in 

costume  designing 

'     3 

crocheting 

"      1 

drawn  work 

"     3 

dressmaking 

"   66 

embroidery 

'   77 

millinery 

95 

plain  sewing 

"   76 

shirt  waist 

29 

skirt 

"     4 

tailoring 

"      1 

-,         j        i*        1           1 

•    o_« 

The  educational  work  in  most  associations  is 
not  extensive  enough  to  be  called  a  school.  Ex- 
ception must  be  made,  however,  in  the  case  of  a 
few  large  associations,  which  have  a  regular  course 
of  study,  give  examinations,  and  grant  certificates 
upon  graduation.  The  number  of  associations 
that  have  fully  developed  an  educational  depart- 
ment is  about  ten. 


XV 

PRIVATE  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOLS 

i.  Brewing  Schools.1  Of  the  schools  of  a 
purely  private  character,  the  brewing  schools  form 
the  clearest  type,  because  the  liquor  industry  is 
avowedly  commercial.  Cultural  elements  and 
influences  for  a  higher  civilization  are  not  a  part 
of  the  goal. 

The  first  and  the  oldest  brewing  institution  is 
the  United  States  Brewers'  Academy,  which  is 
located  in  New  York  City.  It  was  founded  in 
1 88 1.  The  conditions  of  entrance  require  that 
the  applicant  be  eighteen  years  of  age,  and  that 
he  have  in  addition  to  a  good  education,  some 
previous  experience  in  a  brewery.  The  regular 
course  covers  a  period  of  six  months.  The  tuition 
alone  costs  $500.  The  lectures  are  held  in  both 
English  and  in  Ge  man  in  separate  classes.  The 
catalogue  is  issued  in  both  languages.  There  are 
five  instructors.  In  1901,  there  were  35  students; 
in  1908  there  were  only  10, 5  of  whom  were  German. 
The  value  of  the  property  in  1901  was  $15,000. 

1 17th  Annual  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Labor,  Trade  and 
Technical  Education,  1902,  pp.  94-99.  Also,  catalogues  of  the 
schools. 

227 


228    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

The  National  Brewers'  Academy  was  estab- 
lished in  New  York  City  in  1887.  There  is  one 
course  each  year,  consuming  a  period  of  six  months. 
The  tuition  fee  is  $500.  In  1901,  there  were  ten 
pupils.  The  value  of  the  property  is  about 
$15,000. 

The  Wahl-Henius  Institute  of  Fermentology, 
another  school  of  this  type,  is  located  in  Chicago. 
The  courses  and  the  tuition  for  the  year  1909-10 
were  as  follows : 


Courses  of  Study  and  Cost  of  Tuition  in  The  Wahl-Henius 
Institute  of  Fermentology  for  1909-10 


Regular  course  in  brewing  and  malting 

6  months 

$500 

post  graduate  course 

2 

200 

"     bottler's  course 

2        " 

200 

Maltster's  course 

6  weeks 

150 

Engineer's  course 

2  months 

200 

Special  course  for  barley  investigators 

2  to  8  weeks 

$100  to  200 

"       in  the  instruction  of  pro- 

duction of  temperance  beers 

1  week 

100 

The  instruction  is  given  in  both  English  and  in 
German.  In  1901,  there  were  about  35  students. 
Over  700  students  had  been  trained  in  the  school 
during  the  decade  succeeding  1891,  the  date  of  its 
foundation.  The  faculty  consists  of  eleven  mem- 
bers. In  1 901  the  value  of  the  equipment  was 
$28,000. 

In  1898,  Hantke's  Brewers'  School  was  opened 
in  Milwaukee.  Students  must  be  eighteen  years 
of  age  and  have  a  common  school  education.  The 
school  is  open  to  practical  brewers  and  maltsters, 


Private  Industrial  Schools        229 

young  men  who  know  sufficient  of  the  art  of  brew- 
ing to  understand  the  technical  terms  and  who 
intend  to  seek  positions  as  technical  brewers  or 
superintendents.  The  courses  of  study  and  the 
cost  of  tuition  for  the  year  1909-10  were  as 
follows : 


Courses  of  Study  and  Cost  of  Tuition  in  the  Hantke's 
Brewers'  School,  1909-10 


Brewers'  and  maltsters'  course 
Bottlers'  course 
Post-graduate  course 


6  months 
2        " 
2 


$500 
150 
200 


At  the  beginning  of  the  year  19 14  the  school 
moved  into  new  buildings  where,  of  course,  the 
facilities  were  considerably  greater.  A  complete 
model  brewery  wherein  students  do  actual  work, 
manufacturing  many  different  kinds  of  beer,  has 
been  erected  adjoining  the  school.  The  instruc- 
tion is  given  both  in  German  and  in  English.  The 
catalogue  and  a  quarterly  journal  are  issued  in 
both  languages.  There  are  five  instructors.  In 
1 90 1,  there  were  twelve  students  attending  the  six 
months'  course,  and  the  number  has  been  about  the 
same  in  the  subsequent  years.  The  value  of  the 
equipment  in  1901  was  $4500,  but  the  value  has 
risen  considerably  since  then. 

The  schools  present  an  exceptionally  interesting 
contrast  to  the  German  brewing  schools.  The 
low  value  of  the  equipment,  the  small  number  of 
students,  and  the  very  high  cost  of  tuition  are 


230    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

three  points  that  stand  in  exact  contrast  to  condi- 
tions obtaining  in  Germany. l 

The  brewing  business  is  not  considered  an 
honorable  business  by  at  least  one-half  of  the 
population  of  the  United  States;  hence  we  notice 
that  there  never  has  been,  nor  is  there  now  any 
movement  on  foot  to  assist  these  schools  with 
public  funds.  In  fact,  no  legislature  would  dare 
propose  such  a  measure.  Popular  sentiment  in 
the  United  States  is  so  strong  against  the  liquor 
traffic,  that  the  liquor  industry  is  only  too  glad 
to  be  permitted  to  continue  as  a  private  enterprise 
and  does  not  expect  State  or  municipal  aid.  Over 
one-half  of  the  territory  in  the  United  States  is 
now  dry  territory,  and  one-half  of  the  people  live 
in  territories  where  the  sale  of  liquor  is  forbidden. 
The  proportion  of  dry  territory  is  constantly  in- 
creasing, too. 

The  means  by  which  the  schools  are  supported 

1  Such  institutions  as  the  Versuchs  und  Lehranstalt  fur  Brauer 
in  Berlin,  and  the  Konigl.  Brauereischule  in  Weihenstephan,  in 
Munich,  may  be  cited  as  illustrations  to  establish  the  three 
points  of  contrast.  Each  of  these  schools  costs  many  hundred 
thousand  Marks;  each  enrolls  from  80  to  100  students.  The 
tuition  charged  is  as  follows: 

For  Bavaria  50  Marks 

11    other  German  states    150  Marks 
"    foreigners  100  Marks  per  month 

The  first  receives  aid  from  both  State  and  Empire,  while  the 
latter  is  purely  a  State  school.  For  the  further  establishment 
of  these  points  we  may  add  that  Bavaria  has  three  private  schools 
besides  the  State  school.  Each  is  said  to  enroll  about  50  students. 
There  are  several  other  private  schools  in  different  parts  of  the 
Empire. 


Private  Industrial  Schools        231 

show  a  great  contrast,  too.  In  Germany  some  of 
the  schools  are  State  schools,  others  receive  a 
Zuschuss  from  the  State.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
the  United  States,  aside  from  some  equipment, 
which  has  been  given  by  manufactures,  the  brewing 
schools  have  never  received  either  aid  or  en- 
couragement from  either  State  or  municipality. 
Neither  has  any  of  them  received  any  endowment. 
It  is  not  likely  that  any  American  philanthropist 
will  ever  devote  any  of  his  money  in  that  way. 

The  whole  liquor  business  cannot  be  said  to  be 
strictly  an  American  enterprise.  It  is  a  well- 
known  fact  that  there  is  no  other  industry  that  is 
so  largely  managed  by  men  who  are  of  foreign 
birth  or  whose  families  are  of  recent  foreign  descent. 
This  fact  has  been  often  cited  by  the  American 
Anti-Saloon  League.  The  foreign  character  of 
these  schools  is  further  shown  by  the  fact  that  three 
of  the  four  schools  give  their  instruction  in  German 
as  well  as  in  English.  Much  of  their  literature  is 
also  issued  in  German.  This  is  not  true  of  any 
other  type  of  trade  schools.  When  one  looks  over 
the  list  of  students'  names  in  the  catalogues  of 
these  schools  and  the  brewing  firms,  the  great 
preponderance  of  foreign  names  at  once  attracts 
attention.  All  this  shows  that  these  schools  are 
dominated  by  an  influence  and  code  of  ideals  that 
has  not  yet  become  Americanized. 

2.  Other  Types  of  Private  Schools.  There 
are  nearly  a  dozen  schools  for  watchmakers,  en- 


232    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

gravers,  etc.,  that  have  been  in  existence  for  several 
decades.  Their  history  and  growth  is  interesting, 
but  no  economic  or  sociological  interest  that  has 
not  already  been  mentioned  in  connection  with  some 
of  the  types  already  discussed  is  found,  hence,  we 
pass  them  by. 

Some  schools  for  barbers  have  been  organized, 
too,  and  a  few  seem  to  be  fairly  successful.  The 
special  interest  which  they  present  for  this  thesis 
is  the  vigorous  opposition  constantly  directed 
against  them  by  the  labor  unions.  But  this  point 
will  be  discussed  in  another  connection. 

Some  of  the  large  railroad  companies  and  manu- 
facturing companies  have  in  recent  years  estab- 
lished apprenticeship  systems  that  include  a 
regular  course  of  study.  The  companies  use  this 
means  to  get  skilled  workmen.  The  apprentice 
department  of  the  New  York  Central  lines  was 
inaugurated  in  1906.  The  system  adopted  may  be 
summed  up  under  the  following  heads : 

1 .  Close  supervision  and  instruction  of  the  appren- 
tices in  the  shop  by  an  apprentice  instructor  is  pro- 
vided. 

2.  A  school  is  conducted  by  the  company  during 
working  hours,  at  which  mechanical  drawing  is  taught  in 
a  practical  way.   The  apprentice  is  paid  for  attendance. 

3.  A  course  of  problems,  carefully  arranged  to  suit 
the  needs  of  the  apprentices,  has  been  prepared.  These 
they  are  expected  to  work  out  on  their  own  time. ' 

1  Cross,  The  A  nnals  of  the  A  merican  A  cademy  of  Political  and 
Social  Science,  vol.  xxxiii.,  No.  1,  Jan.,  1909,  p.  163. 


Private  Industrial  Schools        233 

The  method  of  instruction  is  as  follows : 

1 .  Text-books  are  not  an  essential  part  of  the  plan. 

2.  There  is  no  sub-division  into  subjects. 

3.  All  principles  are  clothed  in  problem  form. 

4.  There  is  no  arbitrary  standard  of  the  amount 
of  ground  to  be  covered. 

5.  No  examinations  are  held.  The  progress  and 
the  marks  of  the  apprentices  are  based  on  the  close 
personal  touch  maintained  between  the  instructors 
and  the  apprentices. * 

Schools  have  been  established  at  nearly  a  dozen 
different  shops  in  various  parts  of  the  country. 
In  1908,  the  total  number  of  apprentices  enrolled 
in  the  schools  was  500.  The  plan  seems  to  have 
proved  very  successful. 

1  Ibid.,  p.  167. 


XVI 

CORRESPONDENCE  SCHOOLS 

OF  all  the  types  of  schools  in  the  United  States, 
none  have  had  a  history  and  a  growth  more 
wonderful,  more  nearly  approaching  the  incom- 
prehensible than  have  the  correspondence  schools. 
They  are  the  best  possible  specimens  of  American 
push  and  enterprise.  Nothing  that  you  can  tell  a 
German  educator  seems  to  excite  his  interest  and 
even  amazement  more  than  the  rehearsal  of  the 
facts  about  the  development,  size,  and  financial 
and  business  management  of  these  schools. 

Correspondence  schools  had  their  origin  in  this 
way.  In  1 885 ,  the  Pennsylvania  legislature  passed 
a  law  requiring  miners  to  pass  examinations  for 
the  purpose  of  establishing  their  competency.  As 
a  result  of  this  law,  a  "Question  and  Answer" 
column  was  started  in  a  mining  paper  edited  by 
Thomas  Foster.  The  success  of  this  column  was 
so  great  that  Mr.  Foster  enlarged  on  the  idea,  and 
in  1 891  placed  on  sale  a  correspondence  course 
giving  instruction  in  coal  mining.  Such  was  the 
success  of  the  venture  that  other  fields  were 
entered,  although  at  first  with  the  intention  of 
taking  into  the  schools  as  students  only  such  men 

234 


Correspondence  Schools  235 

as  were  practically  engaged  in  the  same  line. 
Later  it  was  found  that  men  could  be  taught  the 
subjects  of  engineering  successfully  by  correspon- 
dence without  regard  to  the  line  of  work  they 
were  actually  pursuing,  and  the  field  has,  there- 
fore, been  enormously  broadened.  The  extension 
has  continued  until  nearly  every  branch  of  in- 
dustrial and  commercial  science  is  represented  by 
an  enrollment  of  thousands  of  students. 

The  largest  school1  of  this  type  is  the  Inter- 
national Correspondence  School  of  Scranton,  Pa., 
of  which  the  Mr.  Foster  just  mentioned  is  the  head. 
Since.  1891,  the  school  has  enrolled  over  1,200,000. 

1  The  recent  1913  catalogue  contains  the  following  statement: 
"The  progressive  policy  of  the  I.  C.  S.  management  has  enabled 
the  institution  to  cover  branch  after  branch  of  industry,  art, 
and  business,  and  to  grow  accordingly  in  capital,  equipment,  and 
the  number  of  patrons  served,  up  to  its  present  standing,  with 
$6,000,000  paid-up  capital;  3,350  employees,  including  an  instruc- 
tion staff  of  400  teachers  and  1 ,650  Field  men :  235  courses  of 
study,  costing  $1,500,000  to  prepare;  5,700  copyrights;  3  home 
office  buildings  of  7  acres'  floor  space  and  costing  over  $950,000; 
34  branch  offices  in  America  and  35  in  foreign  countries;  and 
annual  appropriations  of  $100,000  for  preparation  and  revision 
of  courses.  Approximately  200,000  persons  have  finished  the 
required  work  in  elementary  and  advanced  subjects  to  the 
courses;  as  many  more  have  used  the  bound  volumes  of  instruc- 
tion papers  to  their  advantage,  and  while  we  are  unable  to  secure 
information  regarding  the  advancement  made  by  the  larger 
proportion  of  our  students,  we  are  receiving  at  this  date  the 
voluntary  reports  of  advancement  of  nearly  5,000  students  yearly. 
In  addition  to  these,  several  thousand  students  write  us  that  they 
have  derived  untold  benefit  from  their  studies,  in  mental  and 
moral  discipline,  even  if  they  do  not  use  the  training  received  to 
advance  their  positions." 


236    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

The  total  floor  space  occupied  by  the  school  is 
seven  acres.  The  mailing  department  is  practi- 
cally a  private  post-office.  Over  9000  pieces  of 
mail  are  handled  each  day.  The  cost  of  postage 
alone  is  over  $125,000  a  year. 

The  average  cost  of  a  course  is  seventy  dollars, 
which  two-thirds  of  the  pupils  pay  in  full.  The 
remainder  pay  a  considerable  part  before  aban- 
doning the  course.  Ninety  per  cent,  of  all  the 
students  when  they  enroll  cannot  do  simple  frac- 
tions. The  average  student  is  able  only  to  multi- 
ply and  divide.  The  average  age  is  twenty-six 
years.  Twenty-five  per  cent,  of  the  enrolled 
pupils  never  send  in  any  written  exercises,  but 
study  from  their  text-books  or  give  up  the  whole 
thing  as  soon  as  the  first  enthusiasm  has  died 
down.  One  hundred  and  seven  thousand  students 
have  graduated,  which  is  a  very  indefinite  stand- 
ard to  be  sure,  but  it  is  supposed  that  they 
reached  advanced  standing  in  their  subjects.  One- 
half  of  the  students  study  one  year  under  the  di- 
rection of  the  school. 

So  far  the  number  of  women  enrolled  in  this 
school  is  about  one  per  cent.,  but  the  school  antici- 
pates a  great  increase  in  this  number  as  soon  as 
the  courses  in  domestic  science  are  organized. 
Thousands  of  students  are  enrolled  from  foreign 
countries. 

Another  large  school  of  this  type  is  the  American 
School  of  Correspondence,  which  is  located  in 
Chicago.     It  was  organized  in  1897,  and  since  that 


Correspondence  Schools  237 

date  has  enrolled  125,000  students,  of  which 
number  50,000  are  connected  with  the  school  as 
students  at  the  present  time.  Instruction  is 
limited  to  some  form  of  engineering,  of  which 
several  thousand  courses  or  sub-divisions  are 
offered. 

About  thirty  per  cent,  of  the  students  are  at 
the  time  of  enrollment  not  twenty-one  years  of 
age.  The  average  age  is  about  twenty-five  years. 
A  surprising  number,  notwithstanding  their  fifty- 
five  years  of  age,  take  courses  for  practical  work, 
and  quite  a  number  have  enrolled  when  beyond 
seventy  years  of  age,  with  the  understanding, 
however,  that  they  are  taking  up  the  work  as  a 
pastime  only.  The  average  educational  equip- 
ment of  the  students  is  that  secured  by  a  grammar 
school.  Of  course,  there  are  a  great  many  who 
have  had  little  or  no  education  at  all,  being  simply 
able  to  read  and  write.  About  five  per  cent,  of 
those  enrolled  are  foreigners.  For  instance,  there 
are  several  thousand  enrolled  from  New  Zealand 
and  South  Africa.  About  twenty  per  cent,  of  the 
students  who  enroll  from  the  United  States  are 
foreigners. 

The  average  student  pays  about  $50  for  his 
course.  About  15  per  cent,  of  those  entering 
complete  the  entire  course.  This  school  has  100 
teachers  and  stenographers  giving  their  entire 
time  to  the  work. 

The  data  regarding  the  two  above-mentioned 
schools  are  characteristic  of  all  correspondence 


238    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

schools.  Just  how  manyschools  of  this  character 
there  are,  or  the  exact  enrollment  for  the  whole 
United  States,  it  is  not  possible  to  determine,  but 
it  is  conceded  on  all  sides  that  the  industrial  con- 
tinuation work  of  the  correspondence  schools  is 
more  extensive  than  all  other  industrial  continua- 
tion work  of  public  and  private  enterprise  com- 
bined. 

The  greatest  difference  of  opinion  exists  as  to  the 
value  of  this  work.  The  strictures  of  those  who 
denounce  it  usually  take  one  of  the  following 
forms: 

(a)  Thousands  of  men  with  an  educational  ability 
too  deficient  to  derive  any  possible  benefit  from  their 
courses,  are  dazzled  by  the  glittering  advertisements 
into  paying  the  tuition. 

(b)  It  is  only  a  small  percentage  that  completes 
any  definite  course. 

(c)  The  vast  majority  of  men  enrolling  is  soon 
discouraged  and  frequently  turned  against  all  contin- 
uation work. 

(d)  The  instruction  and  the  grading  of  papers  is 
conducted  on  such  a  wholesale  basis  that  the  needs  of 
individual  pupils  receive  scant  attention. 

Whatever  consideration  the  above  objections 
may  deserve,  the  following  contentions  must  be 
admitted  in  support  of  the  good  achieved  by  these 
schools : 

(a)  To  say  the  least,  such  schools  are  better  than 
no  school  at  all. 


Correspondence  Schools  239 

(b)  Many  men  now  occupying  positions  high  in 
industrial  life  owe  their  advancement  directly  to  the 
correspondence  school. 

(c)  The  work  has  commended  itself  satisfactorily 
to  many  manufacturing  concerns,  superintendents, 
and  foremen,  who  have  advised  their  men  to  enroll. 

(d)  The  fact  that  thousands  of  students  from  every 
state  in  the  Union  are  trying  to  advance  themselves 
in  this  way  and  are  trying  to  secure  an  industrial 
education  is  the  strongest  arraignment  of  the  public 
school  system  in  the  United  States.  Nothing  shows 
more  conclusively  to  how  great  an  extent  the  public 
school  really  fails  to  give  the  people  what  the  country 
requires.  By  pointing  out  the  great  need  of  such 
instruction,  the  correspondence  schools  will  form  a 
transition  stage  to  a  form  of  education  that  more  ade- 
quately meets  the  demands  of  modern  industry. 

(e)  The  soliciting  and  advertising  has  aroused  the 
ambition  of  many  young  men  who  enroll  for  cor- 
respondence courses,  and  after  studying  for  a  short 
while,  attend  some  school  for  a  regular  course. 

As  a  business  enterprise  these  schools  are 
thoroughly  American  in  every  way,  and  in  this 
way  they  present  the  greatest  contrast  to  any- 
thing one  finds  in  Germany.  As  commercial 
enterprises  they  have  piled  up  within  a  few  years 
millions  for  the  promoters,  and  this,  of  course, 
stamps  them  with  an  intensely  commercial  spirit, 
and  discounts  the  good  they  do.  As  skillful 
advertisers,  it  is  doubtful  if  they  have  ever  been 
excelled.  In  Germany  one  finds  a  great  deal  of 
complaint  against  fraudulent  schools,  exaggerated 


240    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

advertisements,  the  making  of  sweeping  promises, 
etc.,  but  the  author  is  sure  that  all  he  has  seen  and 
heard  of  in  Germany  is  after  all  on  a  small  scale 
and  quite  modest  as  compared  with  the  preten- 
sions and  graft  connected  with  such  movements  in 
America.  Here  the  prospective  student  is  as- 
sailed by  a  series  of  letters  written  at  regular 
intervals,  each  one  with  a  distinct  message,  so 
worded  as  to  have  a  special  psychological  effect. 
Besides,  at  different  intervals  during  the  year  he 
will  receive  catalogues  and  pamphlets,  the  postage 
of  which  alone  may  often  cost  fifteen  to  twenty 
cents.1     An  interesting  characteristic  of  all  this 

1  The  following  letter  is  typical: 

"Two  things  there  are  that  never  return — time  past  and 
neglected  opportunity. 

"Time  is  our  greatest  heritage.  And  we  waste  it  like  spend- 
thrifts, unmindful  of  its  value  and  small  supply. 

"Spring  and  summer,  autumn  and  winter,  indifferent,  alike,  to 
persons  and  seasons,  time  moves  on.  Time  is  carrying  you  along 
toward  something — a  future  filled  with  bright  prospects,  or  an  old 
age  of  poverty  and  regrets. 

"You  can't  dawdle  away  a  summer  without  jeopardizing  a 
future.  Every  hour  wasted  while  youth  and  vigor  remain  bends 
your  direction  more  surely  toward  the  junk  heap  of  old  and  worn- 
out  humanity. 

"What  you  amount  to  in  this  world  depends  wholly  upon  your- 
self. What  you  do  with  your  time  determines  absolutely  what 
you  are. 

"No  one  can  help  you  if  you  will  not  help  yourself.  You  have 
got  to  make  your  own  fight.  And  remember  that  all  real  progress 
begins  inside  the  brain.  The  equipment  of  your  brain — the 
knowledge  stored  there — marks  the  path  of  advancement. 

"You  know  which  way  you  are  traveling — backwards  or  for- 
wards— and  you  can  change  the  direction  */  you  will.     You  know 


Correspondence  Schools  241 

literature  is  that  there  is  comparatively  little 
reading  matter  connected  with  it.  It  is  made  up 
largely  of  fine  pictures  of  the  school  buildings, 
both  inside  and  out,  and  only  too  often  are  inserted 
pictures  of  buildings  of  the  city  that  have  little  or 

absolutely  your  own  weaknesses,  and  you  can  remedy  them  if 
you  want  to. 

"Your  future  lies  with  yourself.  You  are  the  architect  of  your 
own  fortune — the  shaper  of  your  own  destiny. 

"An  hour  a  day,  spent  in  acquiring  knowledge,  will  save  your 
future.  Aim  to  get  ahead  yourself.  Make  to-morrow  a  better  day 
than  to-day;  next  month  a  better  month  than  this. 

"Every  hour  spent  in  getting  knowledge  is  a  step  nearer  the 
goal  of  success.  Every  hour  wasted  in  idle  pursuits  is  an  hour 
lostforever. 

"The  world  is  bristling  with  opportunities.  Hundreds  of  them 
past  and  gone  forever,  you  might  have  grasped.  Hundreds  more 
to  come  you  can  grasp,  if  you  get  ready  for  them. 

"The  successful  man  of  the  future  is  getting  ready  for  his 
future  to-day.  He  is  distancing  you  simply  because  he  embraces 
every  opportunity  to  improve  his  attainments,  while  you  stand 
still. 

"You  need  stand  still  no  longer.  You  can  climb,  if  you  will. 
Begin  to-day,  this  very  hour,  the  making  of  your  future  by  signing 
the  enclosed  subscription  and  starting  a  systematic  course  of 
study. 

"Naturally,  you  want  to  get  your  training  as  cheaply  as 
possible.  You  may  still  save  the  large  reduction  offered  from 
regular  prices  of  certain  courses,  but  you  must  act  at  once.  Will 
you?" 

The  following  is  a  typical  second  letter: 

"Five  days  ago  we  sent  you  literature  regarding  a  proposed 
course. 

"Have  you  read  the  literature?  Have  you  decided  what  you 
are  going  to  do?  You  have  not?  Then  we  urge  you  to  do  so 
promptly. 

"We  want  you  to  realize  the  importance  of  your  decision,  too, 
16 


242    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

absolutely  nothing  at  all  to  do  with  the  school. 
Besides,  the  photographs  of  all  the  members  of  the 
supposed  faculty  are  inserted.  All  kinds  of  high 
sounding  degrees  are  appended  to  their  names. 

its  bearing  on  your  future.  It  may  even  mean  the  difference 
between  poverty  and  affluence.  Whatever  your  decision,  be 
sure  that  it  is  right. 

"In  an  hour  you  can  map  out  a  plan  of  action  that  may  change 
and  benefit  your  whole  life.  In  a  year  you  can  get  an  education. 
In  one  year  from  to-day,  if  you  use  your  spare  time — and  only 
your  spare  time — you  may  have  a  good  working  knowledge  of 
some  profession. 

"Systematize  your  time.  Get  up  each  morning  knowing 
what  you  are  going  to  do  during  each  hour  of  the  day — and  do  it. 
Plan  ahead  for  six  months  or  a  year  what  you  are  going  to  accom- 
plish in  the  development  of  your  mind,  the  improvement  of  your 
intellectual  self. 

"You  have  not  every  hour  the  opportunity  to  make  a  fortune 
or  a  great  name,  but  every  hour  you  have  the  opportunity  to 
improve  your  mind.  Remember  that  whatever  your  work  is, 
not  far  from  you  is  some  person  of  your  own  age  to  whom  in 
future  years  you  will  look  up  as  a  successful  man.  What  that 
other  man  is  doing  now,  you  could  do  if  you  would. 

"The  successful  man  of  the  future,  the  man  about  whom  you 
will  be  talking  when  you  are  fifty  or  sixty,  is  now  a  young  man 
like  yourself  with  as  little  chance.  The  principal  difference 
between  him  and  you  is  that  he  is  doing  now  what  you  only  are 
thinking  of  doing. 

"Every  hour  that  finds  you  industriously  at  work  adding  to 
your  knowledge  is  an  hour  that  adds  to  your  power  and  chances 
in  the  future,  and  every  hour  thrown  away  is  a  chance  gone  forever. 

"You  have  already  wasted  enough  time  to  learn  ten  times 
as  much  as  you  shall  ever  know.  That  time  is  gone,  but  in  the 
time  to  come  lies  the  future.  What  you  could  have  done  with  the 
time  that  has  passed,  you  can  do  with  the  time  to  come,  if  you  will. 

"Sit  down  to-day,  this  hour,  this  very  minute  and  plan  the  use 
of  your  time  during  the  next  year. 

"Plan  to  devote  a  given  amount  of  time  each  day  hereafter  to 


Correspondence  Schools  243 

The  whole  arrangement,  from  the  selection  of  the 
quality  of  paper,  to  the  exact  phrasing  of  every 
sentence,  shows  that  nothing  has  been  left  undone 
to  catch  the  attention  of  the  masses. 

the  acquisition  of  knowledge  that  will  make  you  a  better  and  more 
useful  person,  and  then  do  it. 

"In  knowledge  lies  your  only  hope  for  the  future.  Plan  to 
get  it,  and  get  it. 

"Begin  now,  or  the  day  may  come,  when  you  will  look  back 
and  wish  that  you  could  have  the  years  again. 

"Then,  too  late,  you  will  realize  that  time  that  has  passed, 
like  the  water  that  flows  over  the  mill  wheel,  is  gone  forever. 

"Only  a  few  days  remain  during  which  you  may  obtain  the 
benefit  of  the  large  reduction  offered  from  regular  prices  of  certain 
courses.     Don't  lose  it  by  negligence." 


XVII 

COMMERCIAL  SCHOOLS 

i.  Early  History  and  Methods  of  Getting 
Pupils.  It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  form  of 
business  education,  as  now  given  in  the  typical 
American  business  college,  was  original  with  R. 
M.  Bartlett,  first  of  Philadelphia,  later  of  Pitts- 
burg, and  finally  of  Cincinnati. ' 

Bartlett's  statement  of  his  own  experience  is  per- 
haps the  best  explanation  of  the  rise  of  the  business 
college.  He  says  that  when  he  became  of  age  he 
wished  to  know  more  of  bookkeeping  but  could  find  no 
instruction.  He  offered  to  enter  business  houses  and 
learn,  but  was  told  that  proprietors  did  not  want  to 
be  bothered.  The  predicament  in  which  he  was 
placed  was  that  of  not  being  taken  into  an  office 
unless  he  knew  bookkeeping,  and  yet  having  no  place 
to  go  to  learn.  This  condition  he  determined  to 
correct.  He  went  to  New  York,  and  later  came  to 
Philadelphia  where  he  opened  his  first  school  in  1834.3 

A  few  years  later, 

Silas  S.  Packard  began  the  life  of  a  commercial 
teacher  as  an  itinerant  penman.     He  said  that  he 

1  Herrick,  Meaning  and  Practice  of  Commercial  Education,  p. 
178. 

3  Ibid.,  p.  180. 

244 


Commercial  Schools  245 

practiced  penmanship  assiduously  and  traveled  and 
taught  in  various  parts  of  Ohio  and  Kentucky.  It 
was  his  custom  to  go  into  a  town,  display  his  speci- 
mens, and  organize  a  class.  After  a  brief  term  he 
would  move  on  to  a  new  field  of  endeavor.  This  was 
the  practice  of  Piatt  R.  Spencer,  whose  name  was 
taken  for  the  Spencerian  system  of  penmanship,  of 
his  pupil,  H.  D.  Stratton,  and  of  many  others.  Up  to 
the  late  forties  the  quill  pen  was  in  common  use,  but 
about  that  time  steel  pens  began  to  be  substituted. 
The  latter  made  possible  a  new  kind  of  work.  It  is 
not  too  much  to  say  that  Spencer  reduced  the  instruc- 
tion in  penmanship  to  a  science;  before  his  time  it 
was  termed  a  mere  imitative  art.  About  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century  a  semiangular  form  of 
writing,  with  a  combination  of  forearm  and  finger 
movement,  began  to  be  common.  The  old  method  of 
producing  writing  was  by  measurement,  which  gave 
mechanical  exactness,  but  did  not  give  encouragement 
to  learners.  The  free  movement  of  Piatt  R.  Spencer 
began  a  new  era.  The  differences  were  most  marked 
in  the  making  of  capitals.  The  photographic  repro- 
duction of  penwork  has  made  possible  marvelous 
advances  in  the  teaching  of  penmanship.  Spencer 
was  termed  by  Mr.  Packard  "the  greatest  writing 
master  of  his  age."  His  work  was  continued  by  his 
sons  and  nephew  and  the  family  has  made  the  name 
an  honored  one  in  the  annals  of  commercial  education.1 

For  the  next  forty  years  the  traveling  penman- 
ship teacher  was  a  well-known  character  all  over 
the  country.     It  was  the  period  when  the  saying 

1  Ibid.,  p.  181. 


246    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

obtained,  "If  a  young  man  has  a  good  character 
and  can  write  a  good  hand,  he  is  prepared  to  enter 
commercial  life." 

From  these  penmanship  classes,  business  colleges 
trace  their  origin.  As  the  population  grew  denser, 
and  business  became  more  complicated,  there 
arose  a  demand  in  the  cities  for  a  permanent 
school  where  young  men  and  women  could  learn 
not  only  writing,  but  commercial  branches  beside. 

Even  before  the  year  i860,  private  business 
colleges  were  established  in  all  the  large  cities. 
The  chief  subjects  of  instruction  were  penman- 
ship, bookkeeping,  commercial  arithmetic,  and 
commercial  law. 

As  early  as  1853  we  have  in  operation  the 
"chain"  of  business  colleges  which  was  headed  by 
H.  B.  Bryant  and  H.  D.  Stratton.  Before  ten 
years  had  elapsed  more  than  fifty  schools  were 
working  under  one  management.  These  schools 
had  uniform  text-books  as  well  as  interchangeable 
and  perpetual  scholarships.  The  price  of  the 
scholarship  was  forty  dollars,  and  the  local  man- 
agers were  given  a  percentage  of  the  net  profits 
from  the  schools  under  their  charge.  It  was  the 
dream  of  the  founders  to  put  a  school  in  every  city 
of  ten  thousand  or  more  inhabitants.  But  before 
1873,  the  whole  plan  fell  through,  because  the 
poorer  schools  sold  so  many  scholarships  pre- 
sented for  tuition  at  the  better  schools  that  much 
dissatisfaction  arose. 

The    following    extract,    which    describes    the 


Commercial  Schools  247 

Eastman  schools,  illustrates  well  the  daring 
adventures  of  the  pioneer  business  colleges  of  the 
United  States.  To  a  German  it  must  sound  more 
like  a  novel  than  like  the  truth. 

Among   the    pioneer   business   college    proprietors 
were  George  W.  Eastman  and  his  nephew,   H.   G. 
Eastman.      The    former  had  a  business  school    in 
Rochester,  New   York,    during    1853-54,    where   the 
latter  attended  as  a  student.     From  Rochester,  H.  G. 
Eastman  went  to  Oswego,  New  York,  and  later  to 
St.  Louis,  Missouri,  in  both  of  which  places  he  con- 
ducted schools  with  indifferent  success.     In  1859  he 
transferred  his  scene  of  labor  to  Poughkeepsie,  New 
York.      He  was  the  most  daring  advertiser  of  all  the 
early  managers,  and  before  he  reached  Poughkeepsie 
began  the  policy  that  was  to  make  his  school  successful. 
On  his  arrival  he  is  said  to  have  found  a  "bushel  of 
letters"  awaiting  him.     At  times  he  became  heavily 
involved  from  his  advertising;  but  he  had  supreme 
confidence  in  his  work  and  was  able  to  inspire  confi- 
dence  in  others.      Mr.  S.  L.  Williams  reports  that 
at   times  he  would  buy  a  whole  page  in  the  New 
York  papers  at  a  cost  of  from  $1500  to  $3000.     Mr. 
Eastman  organized  a  full  brass  band  which  he  used 
in  various  cities  to  gather  crowds,  after  which  the 
claims  of  his  school  would  be  presented  in  a  stump 
speech,  and  advertising  material  distributed.     Orna- 
mental penmanship  was  similarly  employed  to  interest 
people,  after  which  they  would  be  canvassed.     Early 
in  his  career,  H.  W.  Flickinger  went  to  the  Ohio  State 
fair    as    Eastman's    penman.     Intense    competition 
from  the  Bryant  and  Stratton  schools  forced  Eastman 
to  these  methods.     His  greatest  stroke,  however,  was 


248    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

in  the  display  he  made  in  the  procession  at  Lincoln's 
second  inaugural,  and  the  distribution  of  what  are 
claimed  as  a  million  circulars  to  the  soldiers  who  were 
still  in  the  field.  When  the  armies  were  disbanded, 
men  who  wished  to  make  the  most  of  a  new  beginning 
remembered  the  Eastman  propaganda,  and  H.  G. 
Eastman's  business  college  was  a  pronounced  success. 
H.  W.  Flickinger,  long  known  as  a  masterful  penman, 
was  among  those  who  entered  at  the  Eastman  school 
soon  after  being  mustered  out  of  the  Union  army. 
Those  who  knew  Eastman  characterize  him  as  a 
strong  personality  with  untiring  energy.  With 
Stratton  and  Packard  he  left  his  impress  on  early 
business  education  in  this  country.  * 

Many  of  the  above-described  methods  of  getting 
pupils  still  prevail.  All  private  business  schools 
advertise  extensively  in  newspapers,  magazines, 
and  other  media.  Each  school  has  its  own 
literature,  filled  with  statements  concerning  men 
who  through  a  business  education  have  made 
vast  fortunes.  Many  testimonials  are  included 
from  older  students,  who  testify  to  the  high  salaries 
they  are  securing  as  a  result  of  the  training  re- 
ceived at  that  particular  school. 

A  large  percentage  of  the  schools  have  traveling 
agents,  who  give  their  entire  time  to  soliciting 
pupils.  These  agents  make  personal  visits  to  the 
young  men  and  women,  or  to  their  parents,  and 
hold  out  to  them  attractive  offers  of  special  rates. 
Every  sort  of  inducement  is  used  to  get  pupils. 

1  Herrick,  Commercial  Education,  pp.  189-190. 


Commercial  Schools  249 

The  influential  people  in  the  various  communities 
are  frequently  paid  commissions  for  the  pupils 
secured  through  their  instrumentality.  Another 
plan  is  to  pay  the  local  pastor  ten  dollars  or  more 
for  every  pupil  he  succeeds  in  inducing  to  attend 
the  school. 

Some  schools  conduct  an  active  personal  can- 
vass in  places  located  more  than  one  thousand 
miles  from  the  school.  A  favorite  method  is  to  go 
over  the  country  with  a  horse  and  buggy.  In  this 
case  solicitors  go  from  house  to  house,  inquiring 
for  young  men  and  women  likely  to  be  interested 
in  attending  school.  The  author  himself  traveled 
in  this  manner  for  three  summers,  a  period  of 
three  months  each  time.  As  it  happened,  each 
summer  he  was  a  representative  of  a  different 
school.  The  territory  covered  by  him  comprised 
the  larger  parts  of  the  States  of  Mississippi, 
Alabama,  and  Illinois.  This  manner  of  soliciting 
students  is  more  in  vogue  in  the  Southern  than  in 
the  Northern  States.  When  representatives  of 
rival  schools  meet,  or  when  they  strike  territory 
that  has  just  been  canvassed,  it  becomes  necessary 
for  each  to  present  the  claims  of  his  own  school 
in  very  strong  terms.  These  solicitors  are  also 
expected  to  make  a  special  point  of  attending  all 
county  institutes,  county  fairs,  Chautauquas, 
revival  meetings,  basket  meetings,  and  conven- 
tions that  come  to  their  knowledge  while  en  route. 
At  such  places  literature  can  be  distributed  ad- 
vantageously, and  best  of  all,  a  representative 


250    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

frequently  gets  a  chance  to  make  a  speech.  He 
does  his  best  to  take  advantage  of  such  an  oppor- 
tunity to  make  himself  strong  with  the  people  of 
the  community. 

All  this  is  so  different  from  what  is  customary  in 
Germany  that  no  comparison  is  possible. 

2.  The  Present  Status  of  Business  Colleges, 
Commercial  High  Schools,  and  the  Commercial  De- 
partments of  High  Schools  and  Normal  Schools. 
In  recent  years  the  chain  business  college  idea 
has  again  been  developed.  Among  the  largest  of 
these  is  the  Draughon's  Chain  of  Business  Colleges, 
which  comprises  34  schools.  Brown's  Business 
College  chain  comprises  15  schools.  There  are 
several  other  chains  that  number  from  8  to  12 
schools.  Each  chain  is  under  one  uniform  sys- 
tem, and  owned  by  one  company.  The  tuition 
rates,  text-books,  courses  of  study,  etc.,  are  all 
uniform. 

Another  affiliated  business  college  scheme  is 
the  one  known  as  the  American  Institution  of 
Commercial  Schools,  which  is  located  in  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.  This  organization,  through  its  officers 
and  faculty,  examines  all  candidates  for  gradua- 
tion in  the  affiliated  schools.  That  is,  the  ques- 
tions, prepared  by  the  parent  school,  are  sent  to 
the  affiliated  schools.  The  present  school  also 
conducts  a  home  study  course  for  commercial 
teachers.  The  course  covers  a  period  of  four 
years,  at  the  completion  of  which  certificates  are 
issued.     The  real  purpose  of  the  whole  plan   is 


Commercial  Schools  251 

an  attempt  to  raise  the  standard  of  commercial 
education. 

As  business  enterprises,  commercial  institutions 
have  been  eminently  paying  investments,  in  some 
instances  astonishingly  remunerative, — -much 
more  so  than  private  literary  institutions.  There 
are  quite  a  number  of  business  college  proprietors 
who  have  become  wealthy  (that  is,  they  are  worth 
several  hundred  thousand  dollars).  When  we 
consider  that  two  schools  have  an  enrollment  of 
more  than  2000  annually,  and  eleven  more  than 
1000,  and  56  more  than  500,  and  that  each  student 
pays  between  $60  and  $100  tuition  for  the  course 
of  six  to  twelve  months  (usually  about  $10  per 
month),  also  that  the  schools  usually  make  in  the 
case  of  each  student  a  profit  of  $8  to  $10  on  text- 
books sold  to  him,  and  that  the  schools  usually 
charge  $5  for  a  diploma  costing  only  $1, — then  it  is 
clear  how  these  fortunes  are  made. 

Another  channel  through  which  commercial 
people  are  trained  is  the  high  school.  Although 
it  is  more  than  fifty  years  since  some  of  the  high 
schools  have  had  bookkeeping  and  shorthand  as 
subjects  in  the  curriculum,  yet  it  is  but  little  more 
than  a  decade  since  a  commercial  department 
formed  a  recognized  division  of  most  high  schools. 
For  the  past  ten  years  some  of  the  larger  cities  have 
had  separate  commercial  high  schools.  Both  of 
the  last-mentioned  types  of  schools  are  rapidly 
growing. 

Several  observations  are  worthy  of   note  con- 


252    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

cerning  the  high  schools  having  commercial  de- 
partments:— First,  the  high  school  principal  and 
faculty  use  the  commercial  department  as  a  kind 
of  outlet  for  their  poorer  pupils.  If  a  high  school 
student  graduates  from  the  literary  department 
of  the  high  school  he  is  in  a  position  to  enter  most 
American  colleges.  But  if  he  is  deficient,  he 
fails  of  promotion  after  his  first  year  of  college 
work,  and  this  failure  reflects  unfavorably  on  the 
high  school  that  allowed  him  to  graduate.  Hence 
the  principal  is  anxious  to  have  incompetent 
pupils  enter  the  commercial  department  because 
the  training  there  offered  leads  to  no  higher  course. 
Hence  the  carelessness  with  which  the  high  school 
work  is  done  is  not  so  likely  to  come  to  public 
notice.  This  situation  is  a  further  illustration  of 
what  we  have  said  regarding  the  precarious  posi- 
tion of  the  American  teachers  and  shows  how  little 
independence  they  have  in  preventing  a  pupil  from 
passing  from  one  grade  to  the  next  provided  the 
pupil  attends  the  school  fairly  regularly.  The 
independence  of  the  German  teacher  in  a  similar 
position  has  already  been  noted. 

On  the  part  of  the  high  school  pupils,  the  com- 
mercial courses  are  frequently  selected  because 
they  are  recognized  as  the  "snap  courses."  The 
pupil  secures  the  social  position  attached  to 
attendance  upon  the  high  school,  without  being 
obliged  to  work  much. 

That  the  high  school  faculties  look  upon  the 
commercial   department  as  a  somewhat  inferior 


Commercial  Schools 


253 


department,  though  demanding  for  its  completion 
the  same  amount  of  time,  is  well  illustrated  by  oft- 
expressed  regret  on  the  part  of  some  member  of 
the  faculty  that  such  and  such  an  ambitious  boy 
or  girl  (on  account  of  the  possible  opportunity  to 
earn  a  good  salary  as  soon  as  the  course  has  been 
completed)  has  been  obliged  to  give  up  the  literary 
course  and  take  instead  the  commercial  course. 

Another  type  of  school  that  offers  commercial 
courses  is  the  private  normal  school.  The  normal 
schools  are  primarily  literary  institutions,  but 
nearly  all  of  them  have  a  commercial  department. 

The  following  tables  give  some  idea  of  the 
relative  growth  of  the  different  types  that  we  have 
mentioned. 

Comparative  Statistics  of  Commercial  and  Business 

Schools  * 


Male 

Female 

Total 

1898-99 

No.  of  schools  reported,  320 
Commercial  course 

25.439 

9,920 

721 

7,241 

12,749 

260 

Amanuensis  course 

Course  in  telegraphy 

1 899-1900 

Commercial  course 

37,538 

14,451 

1,413 

58,396 

12,844 

20,054 

699 

33,153 

Amanuensis  course 

No.  of  instructors 

No.  of  students 

No.  of  schools  reported,  373 

1  Taken  from  reports  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for 
the  respective  years. 


254    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 


Male 

Female 

Total 

1907 

No.  of  schools  reported,  445 

No.  of  instructors 

No.  of  students 

1,720 

75,589 
50,670 
19,806 

38,846 

19,846 

2,553 

1,136 
6i,775 
45,430 
12,837 

18,425 

34,H5 
530 

Students  in  day  courses 

Students  in  night  courses. 

Average  attendance,  day  school 

Average  attendance,  night  school 

In  commercial  course 

39,687 
14,524 

In  amanuensis  course 

Course  in  telegraphy 

The  following  shows  the  present  status : 

The  actual  number  of  commercial  and  business 
schools  in  the  United  States  is  not  below  1000.  In 
19 12,  only  519  of  these  schools  reported  their  statistics 
to  the  Bureau  of  Education.  So  far  as  reported  more 
than  half  the  business  students  that  year  belonged  to 
public  and  private  schools.  There  were  143,150 
business  students  in  2516  public  and  private  high 
schools,  as  compared  with  137,790  in  the  private 
commercial  schools  reporting. 

Students  in  Commercial  Courses,  1911-12 


BUSINESS   STUDENTS 

Class  of  Institution 

Schools 

Male 

Female 

Total 

Private  high  schools 
Public  high  schools 
Commercial  schools 

603 

1,913 

519 

8,254 
58,323 
72,258 

5,919 
70,654 

65,532 

H,i73 
128,977 
137,790 

Total 

3.035 

138,835 

142,105 

280,940 

Commercial  Schools 


255 


There  must  have  been  between  50,000  and  100,000 
students  in  the  commercial  schools  not  reporting. 
It  is  safe  to  estimate  the  total  number  of  students  in 
business  courses  during  some  part  of  191 2  at  350,000. 

The  following  synopsis  relates  exclusively  to  the 
statistics  of  the  519  private  commercial  schools 
reporting  to  this  office : 

Summary    of    Instructors,    Students,    and    Graduates    in 
Commercial  and  Business  Schools,  1911-121 


Male 

Female 

Total 

Number  of  instructors 

1,758 

1,262 

3,020 

Number  of  students  enrolled 

72,258 

65,532 

137,790 

Students  in  day  courses 

51,875 
20,383 

50,532 
15,000 

102,407 
35,383 

Students  in  night  courses 

Average  attendance,  day  schools 





43,451 

Average  attendance,  night  schools 





i5,74i 

Students  in  commercial  courses .  .  . 

30,952 

12,343 

43,295 

Graduates  from       " 

7,009 

3,413 

10,422 

Students  in  amanuensis  courses    . 

15,752 

32,317 

48,069 

Graduates  from       " 

4,053 

9,638 

13,691 

Students  in  combined  courses .... 

n,552 

11,061 

22,613 

Graduates  from  combined  courses. 

3,243 

3,32i 

6,564 

Students  in  English  courses 

7,730 

4,634 

12,264 

Graduates  from  English  courses.  . 

416 

397 

813 

Students  in  telegraphy  course.  .  .  . 

2,001 

133 

2,134 

Graduates  from  telegraphy  course 

547 

44 

59i 

Before  drawing  any  conclusions  from  these 
figures  it  will  have  to  be  noted  that  they  are  not 
fully  accurate,  hence  can  be  used  only  to  cor- 
roborate some  facts,  which  are  pretty  well  known 
without  any  figures. 2 

We  note  that  the  "high  water  mark"  in  the 

1  U.  S.  Education  Report,  1912,  p.  565. 

3  The  unreliability  of  these  figures  comes  about  in  this  way ; 


256    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

attendance  upon  commercial  and  business  schools 
was  reached  in  1904-05.  For  several  years  before 
that  date  the  increase  was  but  slight,  and  since 
then  a  decline  has  set  in.  The  commercial  de- 
partments in  high  schools  and  the  commercial 
high  schools  are  checking  the  growth  of  commercial 
schools  as  private  enterprises.  The  private  nor- 
mal schools  also  show  a  decline  in  the  number 
of  commercial  students.  That  falling-off  is  to  be 
attributed  to  the  same  cause,  and  we  may  go 
farther  and  state  that  so  many  State  normal 
schools  are  now  being  established  that  the  private 
normal  school  is  passing  altogether. 

The  rapidly  increasing  part  that  women  have 
in  these  schools  is  to  be  noted,  especially  when 
compared  with  Germany.  In  1899,  one-third  of 
the  teaching  force  was  comprised  of  women,  and  in 
1907,  the  representation  had  mounted  to  two-fifths, 
and  the  proportion  is  certainly  still  rising.  The  pro- 
portion of  women  among  the  students  is  increasing 
still  faster,  especially  in  the  amanuensis  courses. 

3.     Some    Comparisons   with    Germany,     (a) 

The  Curriculum.     The  curriculum  in  the  commer- 

( 1 )  All  schools  do  not  report  to  the  Government  regularly.  Very 
often  the  Government  blanks  are  thrown  into  the  waste  basket 
as  fast  as  they  reach  the  schools.  (2)  There  is  so  much  lack  of 
uniformity  in  the  classification  of  courses  that  it  is  really  hard  to 
fill  out  the  Government  blanks  even  when  the  school  proprietors 
desire  to  give  a  candid  report.  (3)  These  figures  often  represent 
gross  exaggerations,  because  some  proprietors  are  anxious  to 
use  this  as  a  means  of  advertising  their  school ;  hence  they  report 
a  much  larger  attendance  than  the  facts  justify. 


Commercial  Schools  257 

cial  high  school  usually  embraces  some  form  of 
bookkeeping,  consuming  three  to  five  hours  each 
week  for  the  whole  period  of  four  years,  other 
commercial  subjects,  modern  languages,  and  such 
sciences  as  will  be  most  serviceable  in  business. 
These  high  schools  are  preparing  young  men  and 
women  for  business  positions  in  a  highly  creditable 
manner.  But  the  number  of  commercial  high 
schools  is  still  small  as  compared  with  the  number 
of  high  schools  that  have  commercial  departments. z 

1  The  following  extract  taken  from  the  March,  19 14,  Business 
Educator  shows  what  is  perhaps  the  most  modern  form  of  a  com- 
mercial high  school  curriculum:  "The  High  School  of  Commerce, 
where  I  am  connected,  which  has  had  a  remarkable  growth 
during  the  first  year  of  its  organization,  enrolling  over  eight 
hundred  pupils,  has  gone  so  far  as  to  eliminate  from  its  course 
every  subject  usually  taught  in  academic  high  schools.  Through 
the  efforts  of  an  aggressive  Board  of  Education  and  Superinten- 
dent of  Public  Instruction  it  has  substituted  for  the  usual  aca- 
demic subjects  in  addition  to  the  commercial  branches  correlated 
with  Shorthand  and  Bookkeeping,  such  subjects  as  Industrial 
Chemistry,  Applied  Physics,  Commercial  German,  Elements  of 
Transportation,  Accounting  and  Banking  Salesmanship,  Tele- 
graphy, Advertising  and  Elementary  Finance.  It  is  claimed 
that  those  who  do  not  expect  to  go  to  college  should  receive  the 
maximum  of  useful  instruction  in  the  high  school,  and  should 
not  be  burdened  by  the  study  of  languages  and  sciences  which 
they  will  never  use.  The  trend  of  the  times  calls  for  useful 
training,  which  if  properly  offered  will  possess  all  the  desirable 
elements  of  the  so-called  'cultural'  subjects  and  none  of  the 
undesirable  ones.  The  taxpayers  should  be  allowed  to  decide 
what  they  receive  for  money  invested  in  the  public  schools. 

"This  is  one  of  the  greatest  commercial  nations  to  qualify 

men  for  important  positions  in  the  business  courses,  which  teach, 

in  a  scientific  manner,  many  subjects  designed  to  fit  men  for 

important   business   pursuits.    Our   departments   of   business 

17 


258    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

If  the  latest  figures  could  be  obtained,  they  would 
show,  no  doubt,  that  there  are  over  100,000  in  the 
commercial  departments  of  the  American  high 
schools  at  present.  But  it  is  safe  to  say  that  not 
one-half  ever  learn  enough  about  bookkeeping 
or  other  commercial  subjects  to  enable  them  to 
take  any  kind  of  a  commercial  position.  The 
commercial  course  in  high  schools  of  this  type 
substitutes  for  the  Latin  and  Greek  of  the  regular 
high  school  course  French  and  German.  Much 
of  the  mathematics  and  science  of  the  regular 
literary  course  is  dropped  in  order  to  make  way 
for  bookkeeping  and  stenography. 

In  the  business  colleges  the  students  may  be 
divided  into  three  groups,  (1)  those  taking  type- 
writing, stenography,  penmanship,  and  spelling; 
(2)  those  taking  all  of  the  above  mentioned  sub- 
jects and  also  bookkeeping  and  commercial  law 
(the  latter  is  generally  known  as  the  combined 
course  and  requires  from  seven  months  to  one 
year  for  its  completion) ;  and  (3)  those  taking  only 
bookkeeping,  commercial  law,  and  arithmetic. 
However,  the  number  of  students  in  this  third 
class  is  small  as  compared  with  that  of  the  first 
two  divisions. 

The  study  of  bookkeeping  in  most  schools  is 
not  organized  in  classes,  as  is  generally  the  case 

administration  have  been  imitated  by  the  great  universities  of 
Europe,  which  is  the  highest  endorsement  any  institution  could 
have." — By  L.  C.  Rasmusel,  Principal  High  School  of  Commerce, 
Omaha,  Neb. 


Commercial  Schools  259 

in  Germany.  Each  student  works  through  a  set 
of  books  as  slowly  as  he  likes.  The  ambitious 
learn  a  great  deal  in  a  short  time,  whereas  a  high 
percentage  leave  the  school  without  finishing  any 
definitely  fixed  course.  The  American  method 
seems  to  develop  more  originality  and  independ- 
ence, and  gives  the  individual  more  chance,  while 
the  German  plan  does  more  for  the  average  pupil 
and  keeps  the  "dull  head"  from  making  an  ab- 
solute failure.  The  fact  that  the  American  plan 
throws  the  student  so  completely  on  his  own  re- 
sponsibility, no  doubt  has  something  to  do  with 
his  success  in  later  commercial  life. 

One  cannot  help  noting  that  in  the  two  countries 
a  very  different  degree  of  importance  is  attached 
to  certain  elements  of  the  training.  In  Germany 
the  emphasis  is  upon  bookkeeping  in  all  its  exact 
varieties  and  detail,  commercial  law,  trade  eco- 
nomics, and,  above  all,  a  special  stress  is  put  upon 
German.  In  American  business  colleges  students 
talk  of  their  speed  in  shorthand,  speed  in  type- 
writing, and  the  number  of  words  they  can  write 
a  minute.  A  short  visit  to  almost  any  American 
business  college  would  at  once  reveal  how  much 
greater  is  the  role  these  subjects  play  here  than 
in  Germany.  This  is  explained  in  part  by  the 
fact  that  the  students  command  good  wages  at 
once  or  soon  after  leaving  school,  and  that  unless 
they  can  work  quickly,  it  would  not  pay  to  keep 
them. 

Whereas   the   Germans   spend   much   time   on 


260    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

German,  the  Americans  devote  more  time  to 
spelling.  This  seems  to  be  explained  for  the  most 
part  by  the  fact  that  the  German  language  is  much 
more  difficult  from  a  grammatical  standpoint, 
while  the  English  spelling  is  the  harder  to  master. 
In  most  business  colleges,  regular  spelling-books 
are  used,  and  for  an  hour  each  day  the  students 
are  drilled  in  learning  long  lists  of  words  derived 
from  the  books  or  from  business  correspondence. 
The  learning  of  all  the  silent  letters  in  words  means 
a  tremendous  loss  of  time,  not  only  while  in  school, 
but  in  business  life  as  well.  It  affords  one  of  the 
greatest  arguments  in  favor  of  spelling  reform. 

(b)  The  Preparation  of  the  Teachers.  Prof. 
Ashby,  one-time  superintendent  of  the  business 
section  of  the  National  Educational  Association, 
states  that  he  thinks  about  fifty  per  cent,  of  the 
business  college  teachers  have  had  practical  expe- 
rience in  the  business  world,  and  that  about  15 
per  cent,  of  those  teaching  banking  have  had 
experience  in  banking  institutions.  The  wages 
paid  in  business  positions  are  so  tempting  that  it 
is  hard  to  get  first-class  teachers.  When  a  teacher 
is  offered  the  same  salary  in  a  business  position, 
especially  in  a  bank,  he  will,  in  nearly  every  case, 
leave  the  school  because  the  new  position  carries 
with  it  more  prestige  and  far  better  chance  for 
promotion. 

The  teachers,  as  a  rule,  are  not  prepared  to  train 
the  students  for  actual  business  conditions.  The 
student  usually  acquires  a  minimum  of  general 


Commercial  Schools  261 

knowledge  about  bookkeeping  and  its  allied 
branches,  and  the  supplementary  knowledge  he  se- 
cures after  he  enters  business.  The  close  connection 
between  the  curriculum  and  the  various  business 
conditions  and  grades  of  commercial  life,  have  not 
been  worked  out  as  closely  in  the  United  States 
as  they  have  been  in  Germany.  The  difference 
may  be  more  clearly  stated  by  drawing  attention 
to  the  fact  that  in  the  United  States  the  business 
of  the  country  and  the  commercial  demands  have 
made  the  business  college.  The  business  colleges 
are  primarily  engaged  in  giving  the  pupils  such  a 
preparation  as  will  enable  them  to  handle  the 
business;  in  Germany,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
business  education  offered  by  the  commercial 
schools  attempts  and  accomplishes  much  more. 
One  also  notices  a  decided  effort  not  only  to  pre- 
pare pupils  to  take  care  of  the  business,  but  to 
enable  them  to  formulate  plans  and  devices  for 
creating  new  business.  In  other  words,  commer- 
cial education  and  the  commercial  world  stand  in 
a  much  closer  relation  in  Germany.  This  will 
become  still  clearer  when  we  answer  the  following 
question, — why  did  business  education  and  indus- 
trial education  start  in  the  two  countries  in 
reverse  order? 

(c)  The  relation  of  Business  Education  to  in- 
dustry  and  Commerce.  Under  this  heading  we 
must  first  explain  why  business  education  and 
industrial  education  developed  in  America  and 
Germany  in  reverse  order. 


262    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

In  Germany  we  noticed  that  industrial  and 
commercial  education  went  more  or  less  hand  in 
hand,  but  the  industrial  side  always  just  a  little 
in  advance.  The  commercial  work  usually  formed 
a  department  of  the  early  industrial  schools,  and 
that  is  true  to-day,  except  where  both  have  be- 
come so  important  as  to  justify  entirely  separate 
institutions.  The  recent  development  of  com- 
mercial education  for  girls  presents  some  excep- 
tions, in  that  the  commercial  schools  came  first 
and  an  industrial  department  later.  But  in 
America,  as  the  material  already  presented  shows, 
the  commercial  schools  came  into  existence  a  full 
forty  years  before  industrial  education  was  even 
heard  of.  In  fact,  the  gap  is  so  great  that  no  one 
in  America  thinks  of  coupling  the  two  or  of  regard- 
ing them  as  closely  related,  whereas  a  different 
conception  regarding  their  connection  obtains  in 
Germany. 

Before  Germany  had  any  need  of  commercial 
schools,  where  people  might  be  taught  how  to  sell 
and  buy,  she  had  to  have  something  to  trade.  For 
that  reason  the  industrial  school  was  called  into 
existence  first,  in  order  that  products  might  be 
put  on  the  market.  But  in  the  United  States 
the  case  was  entirely  different.  The  forests  were 
primeval  and  extensive,  the  mines  were  rich  and 
untouched,  the  soil  yielded  bountifully  from  the 
first.  The  nation  could  begin  selling  at  once. 
Not  until  the  last  few  years  have  the  people  real- 
ized that  they  have  up  to  the  present  been  living  on 


Commercial  Schools  263 

the  "fat  of  the  land,"  denuding  the  forests  reck- 
lessly, wearing  out  the  soil,  and  allowing  capitalism 
so  to  crush  the  masses  that  industrial  education  has 
at  length  been  called  in  to  help  place  the  coming 
industrial  generations  on  a  firmer  footing. 

The  enormous  development  in  commercial 
education,  so  far  in  advance  of  the  industrial  side, 
is  further  to  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  indus- 
trial workers  could  until  recently  be  supplied  so 
largely  from  the  foreign  immigrants.  This  divi- 
sion of  the  population  could  not  be  drawn  upon 
for  the  filling  of  commercial  positions,  because  the 
acquiring  by  the  foreigner  of  the  English  language 
constituted  a  more  or  less  insurmountable  barrier. 

This  gave  native-born  Americans  a  well-nigh 
exclusive  monopoly  of  commercial  positions.  In 
other  words,  the  new  world  had  a  special  need, 
which  could  not  easily  be  filled  by  foreigners; 
hence  the  business  college  arose  to  supply  a 
powerful  demand. 


XVIII 

TRANSITION  TO  THE  PUBLIC  INDUSTRIAL 
CONTINUATION  SCHOOLS 

i.  Dissatisfaction  with  the  Present  School 
System.  The  starting  point  of  the  present  enthu- 
siasm for  industrial  schools  may  be  traced  to  a 
general  dissatisfaction  with  the  organization, 
curriculum,  and  final  results  of  the  schools  that 
are  supposed  to  educate  the  masses. 

A  feeling  prevails  that  trade  schools  will  be  the 
means  of  raising  our  educational  efficiency.  "It 
is  the  only  way  by  which  the  primary  education 
of  the  masses  can  be  prolonged  beyond  the  merest 
elements.  The  great  mass  of  children  in  our  cities 
get  but  a  few  steps  beyond  illiteracy.  The  possi- 
bility of  their  children  learning  something  which 
will  insure  a  decent  livelihood  will  persuade  parents 
to  keep  them  longer  in  school." 

This  dissatisfaction  was  quite  tersely  expressed 
by  Commissioner  Draper  at  the  National  Educa- 
tional Association,  which  met  June  29,  1908,  at 
Cleveland,  Ohio. 

When  but  one-third  of  the  children  remain  to  the 
end  of  the  elementary  course  in  a  country  where  edu- 

264 


Period  of  Transition  265 

cation  is  such  a  universal  passion,  there  is  something 
the  matter  with  the  schools.  When  half  of  the  men 
who  are  responsible  for  the  business  activities  and 
who  are  guiding  the  political  life  of  the  country  tell 
us  that  children  are  not  able  to  do  any  definite  thing 
required  in  the  world's  real  affairs,  there  is  something 
the  matter  with  the  schools.  When  work  seeks  work- 
ers, and  young  men  and  women  are  indifferent  to  it 
or  do  not  know  how  to  do  it,  there  is  something  the 
matter  with  the  schools. 

On  another  occasion  the  same  authority  said: 

The  public  school  system  has  had  but  little  thought 
for  craftsmanship,  by  which  the  greater  part  of  the 
people  must  live,  and  upon  which  the  moral  and 
intellectual  health  of  the  people  and  the  greatness  of 
the  nation  must  depend;  the  work  of  the  schools  has 
led  almost  exclusively  to  mere  culture  and  to  pro- 
fessional and  managing  employments;  the  efficiency 
of  the  teachers  has  been  measured  by  the  number  and 
training  of  the  pupils  they  sent  to  the  grade  above, 
and  thus  the  pupils  have  been  led  to  think  that  the 
grade  above  was  the  goal  of  life ;  and  the  grade  above 
has  led  to  literature  and  the  sciences  and  to  profes- 
sional and  managing  vocations.  This  has  taken  a 
great  many  into  situations  for  which  they  were  not 
adapted,  and  has  overstocked  the  professions;  has 
resulted  in  too  many  partial  or  complete  failures,  and 
is  operating  both  to  the  industrial  and  intellectual 
disadvantage  of  the  country. 

A  change  in  popular  opinion  is  taking  place  just 
now  concerning  the  value  and  the  possibilities 


266    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

of  manual  training  in  the  public  schools.  One  of 
the  strong  arguments  for  manual  training  has 
been  that  it  would  prepare  our  boys  and  girls  to 
earn  their  livelihood  with  their  hands.  The 
growth  in  the  number  of  manual  training  schools 
has  been  remarkable.  In  1907,  manual  training 
was  taught  in  644  cities  having  a  population  of 
4000  or  over,  whereas  in  1890  it  was  taught  in  but 
thirty-seven  cities.  In  the  same  year,  148  inde- 
pendent manual  training  schools  (which  form  a 
part  of  those  already  mentioned)  had  an  enroll- 
ment of  16,797  in  the  grammar  grades,  and  44,294 
in  the  high  schools. f 

The  amount  of  time  devoted  to  manual  training 
varies  all  the  way  from  one  hour  per  week  for  a 
period  of  one  or  two  years  to  five  hours  per  week 
for  a  period  of  four  to  six  years. 

A  fact  of  interest  to  the  present  investigation 
is  the  following:  Manual  training  has  been  tried 
thoroughly  now,  and  while  it  has  justified  its 
place  in  the  curriculum  from  the  standpoint  of  a 
cultural  and  aesthetic  study,  it  has  failed,  as  a 
general  rule,  to  prepare  boys  and  girls  to  enter 
the  workshops.  The  more  this  truth  is  being 
realized,  the  stronger  is  becoming  the  sentiment 
for  industrial  education. 

The  manual  training  high  schools  are  too  elaborate, 
too  expensive,  in  a  way  too  dilettante,  to  lead  to  any- 
thing other  than  one  of  the  industrial  professions; 

1  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1907,  p.  1079. 


Period  of  Transition  267 

often  they  do  not  even  prepare  for  training  in  one  of 
these.  They  are  much  more  like  schools  than  shops, 
whereas  they  should  be  more  like  shops  than  schools. 
In  buildings  that  have  nothing  of  the  appearance  of  a 
shop,  they  have  machinery,  tools,  equipment,  atmos- 
phere, theory  and  practice,  which  differentiate  them 
widely  from  the  shop.  They  are  managed  by  men 
who  are  more  teachers  than  workmen,  when  they 
should  be  managed  by  men  who  are  at  least  quite  as 
much  workmen  as  teachers.  Often  the  machinery  and 
tools  make  an  interesting  show  without  being  needed 
or  effectively  used,  because  there  is  not  a  skilled 
workman  to  use  them.  Many  a  time  a  principal  or 
teacher  pleads  for  an  appropriation  with  which  to  buy 
machinery,  tools  and  other  equipment,  without  any 
definite  theory  or  plan,  or  end,  in  view.  If  refused,  he 
would  feel  outraged  and  become  a  martyr.  If  given, 
he  studies  the  catalogues  and  sees  the  agents  for  the 
purpose  of  spending  the  money  in  ways  that  will  look 
well  and  make  an  impression  upon  the  people,  who  al- 
ways love  an  object  lesson  and  are  often  susceptible 
and  superficial  about  industrial  training.  Real  trades- 
men and  workmen  discriminate ;  and  they  are  amused 
by  what  they  see.  There  is  not  enough  substantial 
result  to  it.  I  know  very  well  that  this  is  not  always 
true,  but  quite  as  well  that  it  is  often  true.1 

A  clearly  stated  critique  of  our  common  school 
system  and  a  further  characterization  of  the  present 
manual  training  school  movement  are  contained 
in  the  following  citation  from  Professor  Commons 
of  the  University  of  Wisconsin. 

1  Draper,  Our  Children,  Our  Schools,  and  Our  Industries,  1908, 
p.  7. 


268    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

I  have  been  able  to  sketch  an  outline  only  of  the 
relations  between  industrial  education  and  dependency. 
Industrial  education  is  one  of  the  essential  things 
needed  to  offset  the  monotony  and  specialization  of 
modern  industry,  and  to  enable  workmen  to  find  and 
keep  their  jobs.  Monotony  and  specialization  ter- 
minate in  mental  degradation,  irregular  work,  under- 
paid work,  or  pauperism,  for  the  grown-up  workingmen 
of  the  State,  although  it  is  seemingly  offset  by  fal- 
lacious high  wages  for  boys.  The  boys  make  more 
money  than  their  fathers  who  have  gone  through  the 
same  machine,  and  so  their  fathers  get  the  pauper's 
idea  of  living  on  the  wages  of  their  children.  Thus 
the  evils  create  each  other  in  a  vicious  circle.  It 
would  be  far  better  for  the  boys  to  get  lower  wages, 
if  therewith  they  get  industrial  education.  This 
would  be  the  case  if  all  boys  under  eighteen,  or 
perhaps  twenty-one,  were  by  law  treated  as  appren- 
tices. Not  until  such  a  policy  is  adopted  can  we 
predict  that  industrial  education  will  do  much  toward 
reducing  the  amount  of  dependency  that  modern 
industry  produces.  Even  then,  there  are  many  other 
things  that  are  also  necessary — a  state-wide  system 
of  employment  offices  to  reduce  the  time  lost  between 
jobs — to  bring  employees  to  the  jobs  they  are  fitted 
for — to  equalize  employment  in  dull  seasons  and  busy 
seasons — to  shorten  hours  of  labor  for  monotonous 
and  specialized  work.  Other  policies  that  are  neces- 
sary might  also  be  mentioned.  But  this  at  least  can 
be  said  for  the  State  that  takes  the  lead  in  industrial 
education, — if  it  adopts  a  comprehensive  system  for 
all  boys  and  girls — if  it  exerts  itself  above  all  else  to 
bring  out  and  train  teachers  who  combine  practical 
shop-work  with  an  understanding  of  the  theories  and 


Period  of  Transition  269 

sciences  that  underlie  intelligent  shop- work,  and  with 
ability  to  teach,  such  a  state  will  take  the  lead  in 
the  industrial  development  of  the  country.  It  will 
afford  a  wider  range  of  selection  for  the  mechanics, 
foremen,  and  intelligent  leaders  in  its  industries.  It 
will  produce  a  larger  proportion  of  steady  and  intel- 
ligent workers.  It  will  produce  a  smaller  proportion 
of  helpless  and  ill-fitted  workers — an  expensive  charge 
on  the  growing  and  changing  industries  of  the  state,  or 
on  the  taxpayers  who  must  provide  their  useless  support . 
Of  course,  it  takes  time.  Social  progress  does  not 
spring  suddenly,  like  a  full-grown  talking  machine, 
from  the  forehead  of  Edison.  Three  million  people 
cannot  figure  out  together  in  advance  just  what  they 
will  want.  They  can  only  pass  upon  the  results 
after  they  have  been  attained.  It  is  the  business  of 
those  who  do  the  planning  to  know  in  advance  what 
the  results  will  be.  Otherwise  reaction  occurs,  and  the 
program  goes  further  back  than  it  was  at  the  begin- 
ning. This  is  especially  true  of  such  a  profound  and 
far-reaching  reform  as  industrial  education  through 
the  continuation  school.  It  reaches  into  almost  every 
workshop  and  every  home  in  the  state.  It  goes  to  the 
very  sources  of  prosperity  and  poverty.  No  greater 
undertaking  could  be  espoused  by  a  democratic  people. 
No  other  possesses  greater  promise  of  usefulness. 
Failures  here  and  there  will  occur,  but  successes  here 
and  there  will  confute  them.  So  important  and  vital 
is  the  movement  that  the  failures  must  be  promptly 
corrected  and  the  successes  made  universal.  Then 
we  may  expect  that  industrial  education  will  be 
accepted  and  enlarged;  that  it  will  contribute  a  de- 
cided share  toward  the  reduction  of  dependency  and 
the  elevation  of  independence. 


2/0    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

2.    Enthusiasm  for  Industrial  Training.     In  the 

United  States  we  started  with  the  fullest  liberty, 
but  we  are  tending  to  be  more  and  more  restricted. 
Professor  Sumner,  of  Yale  University,  stated  in 
the  lecture  on  economics  he  delivered  in  1904  that 
up  to  that  time  a  man  in  the  United  States  could 
get  along  very  well  without  any  profession  or 
without  having  learned  any  special  trade,  in  fact, 
could  change  his  profession  or  trade  several  times. 
A  similar  accomplishment  would  scarcely  be 
feasible  in  Germany. 

By  taking  on  more  discipline  (and  for  the  pur- 
pose of  this  thesis,  that  means  industrial  educa- 
tion for  the  masses)  individual  liberty  can  be 
increased. 

The  realization  of  this  idea  has  found  the  highest 
and  most  powerful  expression  in  the  recent  organ- 
ization and  phenomenal  growth  of  the  Society 
for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Education,  which 
has  enlisted  into  its  ranks,  educators,  statesmen, 
philanthropists,  manufacturers,  and,  to  some 
extent,  the  labor  leaders.  Its  annual  meetings 
are  a  matter  of  national  concern. 

The  following  extract  from  the  report  of  the 
Massachusetts  Commission  indicates  the  tendency 
of  the  public  mind  at  the  present : 

A  strong  general  interest  in  industrial  education 
among  students  of  social  phenomena  and  expert 
students  of  education,  as  furnishing  a  means  of  secur- 
ing greater  efficiency  among  wage  earners  ...  A 
practical  and  specific  interest  among  manufacturers 


Period  of  Transition  271 

and  wage  earners,  now  that  the  old  apprenticeship 
system  has  almost  entirely  passed  away,  in  the  indus- 
trial school  as  a  means  of  training  in  technical  skill 
and  in  industrial  intelligence  ...  A  growing  feeling 
of  the  inadequacy  of  the  existing  public  school  system, 
and  a  desire  that  the  schools  of  the  state  should  meet 
in  a  more  practical  way  the  exact  needs  of  the  great 
body  of  the  children  and  youth  of  the  state  .  .    J 

In  June,  1907,  the  Massachusetts  Commission 
decided  to  learn  the  attitude  of  the  manufacturers 
toward  industrial  education.  The  canvass  was 
made  personally.  The  largest  industries  in  twenty 
cities,  having  a  combined  population  of  1,000,000, 
were  selected.  The  men  interviewed  were  the 
highest  resident  officials, — president,  treasurer, 
secretary,  manager,  or  superintendent.  E very- 
plant  employing  over  ten  men  was  investigated. 
The  different  industries  were  represented  by  over 
900  firms,  who  employed  nearly  200,000  workmen, 
of  which  number  13. 1  per  cent,  were  under  eighteen 
years  of  age. 

It  being  impossible  to  give  the  opinions  of  each, 
the  results  are  given  in  the  form  of  an  interview. 

We  know  that  the  only  assets  of  Massachusetts 
are  its  climate  and  its  skilled  labor.  The  former  is 
reasonably  permanent,  but  the  supply  of  the  latter 
is  not  keeping  pace  with  the  demands  made  upon  it. 

There  is  a  great  dearth  of  skilled  workmen ;  in  fact, 

1  Report  of  the  Mass.  Commission  on  Industrial  Education, 
1907,  P-  13. 


272    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

we  cannot  keep  our  ranks  filled  with  the  kind  of  work- 
men we  would  like  to  employ. 

To-day  there  are  more  big  jobs  and  fewer  big  men 
than  ever. 

Very  few  skilled  workmen  are  now  coming  to  this 
country.  Industrial  conditions  abroad  have  improved 
to  such  an  extent  that  good  workmen  find  employ- 
ment at  fair  wages. 

We  do  not  care  to  employ  young  people  under 
eighteen  years  of  age. 

If  a  school  did  nothing  more  than  to  teach  young 
men  to  have  a  proper  regard  for  the  rights  of  others, 
it  would  be  doing  a  grand  work.  We  find  one  of  our 
great  troubles  is  a  lack  of  moral  responsibility  on  the 
part  of  the  workmen. 

Problems  of  labor  and  capital  have  been  worked 
out  on  a  basis  of  mutual  distrust.1 

Industrial  education  is  gaining  an  added  im- 
petus in  the  United  States,  because  it  is  an  idea 
generally  accepted  that  education  improves  morals 
and  reduces  crime.  The  two  greatest  educators 
that  America  ever  had  (Horace  Mann  and  T.  W. 
Harris)  were  of  this  opinion. 

In  1899,  United  States  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation Harris  showed   that   47  per  cent,  of  the 

1  Second  Annual  Report  of  the  Massachusetts  Commission  on 
Industrial  Education,  p.  621. 


Period  of  Transition  273 

illiterates  were  furnishing  33  per  cent,  of  the 
criminals.1  He  further  showed  that  those  that 
have  not  learned  a  trade  furnish  twice  as  many 
criminals  as  those  that  have  been  apprenticed. 
The  prison  authorities  for  the  State  of  Missouri 
have  just  submitted  a  report  to  the  governor  in 
which  it  is  shown  that  a  large  percentage  of  the 
prison  inmates  would  never  have  become  crimi- 
nals had  they  learned  a  trade. 

This  movement  has  been  greatly  stimulated  by 
many  very  carefully  prepared  reports,  which  show 
in  minute  detail  the  conditions  prevailing  in  the 
larger  cities.  Such  an  investigation  is  the  one 
made  by  James  S.  Haitt,  Secretary  of  the  Public 
Education  Association  of  Philadelphia.  In  an 
address  entitled  "The  Child,  the  School,  and  the 
Job,"  which  was  delivered  in  Philadelphia  in 
1912,  Secretary  Haitt  closed  by  saying  that 

Philadelphia  has  in  her  public  high  schools  13,039 
boys  and  girls.  These  are  the  children  of  parents 
who  are  able  to  send  them  on  to  school.  At  the  same 
time  there  is  a  slightly  larger  number  of  boys  and 
girls, — 13,740 — who  have  been  allowed  to  drop  out 
of  school  at  fourteen  years  of  age  and  to  fight  their 
industrial  battle  alone.  For  the  former  group  who 
are  really  more  able  to  care  for  themselves,  the  city 
pays  $1,532,000  per  year  for  further  training  in  citizen- 
ship and  preparation  for  life.  For  the  latter  group  it 
pays  not  one  cent.  Is  this  a  square  deal?  Is  it 
economy  on  the  part  of  the  city  to  permit  these  child 

1  Report  of  Commissioner  of  Education,  1899,  p.  13 12. 
18 


274   Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

workers  to  go  out  untrained  into  industry,  to  give  their 
lives  before  they  are  mature  and  then  to  become  a 
burden  upon  the  community? 

Another  report  which  is  attracting  considerable 
attention  is  The  Vocational  Guidance  Survey,  made 
by  Miss  Alice  P.  Barrows  in  1912  and  based  on  a 
selected  group  of  children  in  New  York  City. 
Certain  typical  districts  were  selected.  The 
children  studied  were  those  who  took  out  working 
papers.  The  facts  noted  were  the  reasons  for 
leaving  school,  the  age,  the  grade,  and  the  nature 
of  the  employment.  Repeated  visits  were  made 
to  the  homes  of  these  children  during  the  year. 
The  report  concludes: 

Upon  revisiting  these  children,  two  facts  stood  out 
conspicuously.  First,  their  restlessness  and  desire 
for  activity  had  not  found  expression  in  work  which 
meant  anything  to  them,  which  called  upon  their 
growing  powers,  which  made  them  think  and  act  upon 
their  thinking.  They  evidently  had  a  sense  of  futility 
about  what  they  were  doing.  "Stemming  cherries, " 
"winding  silk  on  spools,"  "cutting  threads  on  coats," 
"nailing  frames  on  boxes,"  had  little  relation  to  their 
real  life.  It  was  all  incomprehensible  to  them. 
Secondly,  there  was  an  unformulated,  unconscious 
feeling  of  protest  against  the  lack  of  individual  atten- 
tion and  training,  against  the  military  discipline  and 
inexplicable  tasks.  The  result  was  that  their  desire 
for  training,  for  "a  job  where  you  can  learn,"  had 
become  more  insistent. 

A  summary  of  the  work  that  they  did  will  explain 


Period  of  Transition  275 

these  facts.  Of  the  302  children  studied,  24  were 
still  in  school,  39  had  not  gone  to  work.  They  had 
either  stayed  at  home  or  gone  to  business  or  trade 
school.  239  had  gone  to  work.  They  had  entered 
406  jobs.  Of  these  jobs,  94  were  "outside"  errands; 
19  were  "on  wagons,"  16  at  news-stands;  29  were  in 
department  stores;  27  in  office  work;  44  in  miscel- 
laneous inside  work;  and  177  in  manufacturing. 

These  figures  as  they  stand  mean  little,  but  further 
investigation  gave  only  an  impression  of  confused 
complexity  in  the  kind  of  work  done.  Seventy-nine 
boys  from  one  school  went  into  fifty-nine  different 
kinds  of  establishments.  They  were  of  all  kinds. 
They  were  small  neighborhood  shops  and  large  de- 
partment stores,  tenement  room  contract  shops,  and 
large  manufacturing  establishments  of  a  range  so 
wide  that  they  represent  all  but  one  of  the  main 
groups  distinguished  by  the  New  York  State  Depart- 
ment of  Labor  in  its  classification  of  industry.  These 
establishments  were  not  only  in  every  industry  group, 
but  the  establishments  in  a  single  group  differed  radi- 
cally one  from  the  other.  And  yet  this  state  still 
gives  no  impression  of  the  intricate  interweaving  of 
industries  and  parts  of  industries. 

These  facts  and  the  immediate  practical  problem 
of  the  children  left  the  investigators  with  a  feeling 
of  scepticism  about  the  desirability  of  "guiding  child- 
ren into  vocations."  General  information  is  sorry 
comfort  to  a  boy  whose  whole  problem  is  specific. 

In  all  this  complexity  only  one  thing  remained 
constant — the  lack  of  training.  It  ran  through 
practically  all  jobs,  whatever  the  type  of  establish- 
ment, and  left  them  all  the  same  dull  gray  color.  In 
314  out  of  the  406  jobs  there  was  absolutely  no  train- 


276    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

ing;  in  41  there  was  some  chance  to  "pick  up"  if  the 
rush  was  not  too  great;  in  30,  some  boys  had  a  chance 
to  work  on  one  process,  but  this  usually  meant,  "I 
did  errands  and  sweeping  and  sometimes  had  a  chance 
to  work  on  a  machine";  in  21,  there  was  some  super- 
vision, but  in  the  majority  of  these  cases  the  children 
were  either  working  in  a  small  shop  or  with  relatives. 

Very  specific  information,  which  will  do  much 
to  forward  this  industrial  school  movement  into 
the  right  channels,  has  been  furnished  by  the 
Massachusetts  Board  of  Education  in  its  report 
to  the  legislature  in  January,  1913,  regarding 
The  Needs  and  Possibilities  of  Part-time  Education, 
The  report  states : 

It  is  estimated  that  there  were,  in  1910,  74,700 
children  in  Massachusetts  between  the  ages  of  four- 
teen and  seventeen  who  were  not  in  school.  It  is 
estimated  that  40,000  of  those  who  were  not  in  school 
were  regularly  employed.  Of  the  40,000  young  people 
between  fourteen  and  seventeen  years  of  age  who  were 
reported  as  at  work,  the  textile  industry  employed 
17,306  or  43  per  cent.  Boot  and  shoe  factories  took 
the  second  largest  number,  5,003,  while  in  the  metal 
trades  were  found  2,042.  The  confectionery  industry 
employed  904,  and  printing  and  publishing  768.  Of 
the  total  number  of  these  young  workers  it  appears 
that  71  per  cent,  began  work  at  about  fourteen  years 
of  age.  Taking  the  industries  separately,  69  per  cent, 
of  the  candy  workers  began  work  not  later  than  four- 
teen. Of  the  young  shoe  workers,  56  per  cent,  started 
work  at  fourteen,  while  79  per  cent,  of  the  textile 
group  began  at  the  same  age. 


Period  of  Transition  277 

A  large  proportion  of  the  40,000  who  are  at  work 
lose  considerable  time  through  shifting.  For  example, 
in  the  study  of  textile  workers  in  Fall  River  and  New 
Bedford  9.4  per  cent,  of  the  boys  and  33.9  per  cent, 
of  the  girls  have  lost  from  several  months  to  a  year, 
while  3.2  per  cent,  of  the  boys  and  13  per  cent,  of  the 
girls  who  have  not  married  have  lost  from  one  to  four 
years.  The  evil  effects  of  constant  or  periodic  idle- 
ness during  this  formative  part  of  life  cannot  be  too 
strongly  emphasized,  and  show  the  need  of  supervi- 
sion of  these  young  people  during  their  first  years  at 
work.  The  work  which  they  now  do  is  monotonous, 
and  because  they  cannot  change  from  time  to  time 
to  other  kinds  of  work  requiring  a  similar  amount  of 
skill,  they  lose  their  interest,  and  many  leave  onty  to 
loaf  about.  It  was  found  in  the  study  of  Lowell 
boys,  who  seem  to  be  typical,  that  boys  frequently 
leave  one  mill  and  go  to  another  to  do  the  same  kind 
of  work  simply  to  secure  a  change  in  surroundings 
when  they  cannot  change  their  work. 

The  education  which  has  been  received  by  those 
who  go  to  work  between  fourteen  and  seventeen  years 
of  age  is  often  poor.  Only  one  sixth  of  the  children 
investigated  by  the  Douglas  commission  in  1906  had 
completed  the  grammar  grades.  In  the  present 
investigation  it  was  found  that  the  largest  number, 
21.4  per  cent,  of  the  total  leave  at  the  seventh  grade, 
and  43.6  per  cent,  leave  the  grades  below  the  seventh, 
while  only  3.9  per  cent,  have  gone  beyond  the  gram- 
mar school.  The  data  presented  in  Appendix  C 
seems  to  show  that  10.4  per  cent,  of  those  entering 
the  confectionery  industry  left  at  the  fourth  grade, 
while  35.3  per  cent,  of  the  young  workers  in  cotton 
mills  left  at  the  fourth  or  fifth  grades.     More  than 


278    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

three-fourths,  76.3  per  cent,  of  the  textile  workers 
studied,  left  school  before  entering  the  eighth  grade 
and  only  1.6  per  cent,  went  beyond  the  grammar 
school.  The  shoe  workers  stand  best  in  education. 
Forty-seven  and  two  tenths  per  cent,  of  those  studied 
left  at  the  eighth  or  ninth  grades,  and  8.3  per  cent, 
went  beyond  the  grammar  school. 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  industry  as  at  present 
organized  is  not  able  satisfactorily  to  educate  its 
young  workers.  Employers  find  that  their  workers 
are  poorly  equipped  in  general  knowledge,  and  lack 
specific  training.  Some  employers  assert  that  they 
are  reorganizing  their  business  so  that  it  will  be  nec- 
essary to  employ  fewer  young  workers;  but  a  com- 
parison of  total  numbers  employed  in  the  various 
industries  in  1904  with  the  numbers  found  in  1909 
shows  a  decided  increase  in  the  later  year.  This  may 
mean  that  the  less  efficient  factories  are  employing 
larger  numbers  of  young  people.  While  employers 
complain  of  having  to  employ  poorly  equipped  work- 
ers, there  is  much  to  be  said,  from  the  young  worker's 
standpoint,  as  to  the  prevailing  lack  of  opportunity 
to  advance  in  industry.  Judging  from  the  study  of 
1875  young  workers  made  for  this  report  there  seem 
to  exist  few  opportunities  to  progress  from  job  to 
job  which  would  make  for  advancement  in  vocational 
power.  Frequently  the  first  and  last  jobs  are  iden- 
tical in  character,  showing  that  while  there  may 
have  been  at  times  an  advance,  there  is  a  decline 
later.  In  the  studies  of  Fall  River  and  New  Bedford 
workers  cases  were  found  in  which  there  had  been 
advances  for  the  first  two  or  three  years,  both  in 
occupation  and  wage,  followed  by  a  decline,  due  to  a 
lack  of  physical  strength.     In  addition,  there  seems 


Period  of  Transition  279 

to  be  considerable  shifting  from  place  to  place  and 
from  job  to  job.  Many  of  the  workers  who  were 
interviewed  had  shifted  several  times.  This  was 
true  even  of  some  of  those  who  have  been  working 
only  a  year.  There  can  be  little  if  any  educational 
value  derived  from  a  year's  work  if  that  has  been 
spent  in  several  factories. 

Many  of  the  workers  interviewed  claimed  that 
they  had  great  difficulty  in  learning  a  process  requir- 
ing skill.  Because  in  three  or  four  years  they  had 
been  able  to  increase  their  wages  but  slightly,  and 
could  see  little  opportunity  ahead,  many  gave  up 
work  in  factories  for  anything  else  which  they  could 
find.  Part-time  schools  should  aim  to  prepare  such 
persons  for  this  period  of  transition,  and  to  pave 
the  way  to  better  industrial  opportunities. 

Long  hours  of  monotonous  employment,  and  the 
fact  that  under  present  conditions  workers  are  being 
restricted  to  the  operation  of  one  or  a  few  machines, 
with  little  opportunity  to  gain  a  general  knowledge 
of  the  trade  or  business,  make  it  imperative  that 
part-time  schools  be  established  to  give  to  young 
workers  a  broader  knowledge  of  the  industry  than 
they  are  now  able  to  secure.  Under  the  present 
industrial  system  there  is  a  dearth  of  capable  foremen 
and  superintendents,  due  to  the  lack  of  opportunity 
to  obtain  a  general  knowledge  of  the  industry,  a 
situation  which  should  be  met  by  part-time  schools. 

In  comparing  the  records  of  children  who  have 
been  at  work  one  year  with  those  who  have  worked 
six  years,  we  get  much  enlightenment  as  to  the  amount 
of  progress  made  by  the  two  groups.  In  the  textile 
industry,  which  employs  the  largest  number  of  young 
people,  we  find  that  more  advance  is  made  propor- 


280    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

tionately  in  one  year  than  in  six.  In  the  matter  of 
wages,  only  32.5  per  cent,  of  those  who  have  been  at 
work  six  years  have  increased  their  earnings  by 
amounts  of  from  $4  to  $6,  while  20  per  cent,  of  those 
who  have  worked  only  one  year  have  had  the  same 
increase.  Nineteen  of  those  who  had  been  working 
six  years  were  still  earning  only  the  amount  of  their 
initial  wage.  Only  one  of  the  older  group  had  in- 
creased his  earnings  more  than  $9  in  six  years,  while 
two  of  the  younger  group  had  done  this  in  one  year. 
This  situation  would  seem  to  indicate  that  those 
who  have  been  at  work  six  years  have  made  very 
little  progress  over  the  group  at  work  but  one  year. 
If  this  is  a  normal  condition  in  certain  industries, 
then  part-time  schools  might  give  training  which 
will  enable  these  workers  to  get  into  other  industries 
which  offer  better  prospects. 

All-day  vocational  schools  can  render  much  service 
in  bridging  the  gap  between  the  regular  and  part- 
time  schools  by  discovering  the  type  and  character 
of  work  which  can  be  given  in  part-time  schools,  and 
by  serving  as  training  centers  for  teachers  of  part- 
time  and  evening  schools.  The  principal  reason  why 
these  schools  have  as  yet  failed  to  reach  larger  num- 
bers is  that  when  children  have  actually  left  school 
and  started  to  work  it  is  difficult  to  induce  them  or 
their  parents  to  give  up  the  full  wage  which  is  being 
earned. 

While  the  all-day  vocational  school  can  do  much, 
it  cannot  entirely  meet  the  need  for  industrial  train- 
ing. The  majority  of  young  workers  need  experience 
to  convince  them  of  the  need  and  value  of  vocational 
training.  Seventy  per  cent,  of  the  young  workers 
interviewed  were  found  to  favor  part-time  schools, 


Period  of  Transition  281 

and  their  industrial  experience  was  probably  respon- 
sible for  this  attitude.  They  had  worked  long  enough 
to  begin  to  realize  their  deficiencies  in  education,  and 
to  know  the  value  of  training  along  industrial  lines. 
These  workers  could  have  steadier  employment  if 
they  had  sufficient  industrial  knowledge  to  enable 
them  to  shift  from  machine  to  machine,  from  depart- 
ment to  department,  and,  in  the  case  of  seasonal 
trades,  from  one  trade  to  another. 

Evening  schools  do  not  solve  the  problem  for  young 
workers  under  seventeen  years  of  age,  as  the  majority 
of  them  are  too  tired  to  attend,  even  where  technical 
courses  are  offered.  Experience  shows  that  while 
many  may  register  in  evening  schools,  a  large  pro- 
portion fail  to  attend  throughout  the  term.  To  delay 
the  training  of  these  young  workers  who  leave  school 
at  fourteen  to  a  time  when  only  a  few  may  realize 
the  need  of  instruction  and  attend  an  evening  school 
must  result  in  a  distinct  loss.  Evening  attendance  is, 
on  the  whole,  a  test  of  the  energy,  ambition,  and  vigor 
of  the  wage  earner  to  which  many  cannot  conform. 
The  rush  home  at  the  end  of  a  long  day's  work,  the 
hurried  meal,  and  the  long  journey  to  school  centers 
are  handicaps  which  it  is  difficult  to  overcome.  Large 
numbers  who  are  undoubtedly  worth  educating  do  not, 
when  they  reach  maturity,  attend  an  evening  school, 
while  of  those  who  do  many  have  been  out  of  school 
for  so  many  years  that  they  have  practically  forgotten 
much  of  what  they  learned  before  leaving.  Many 
young  people  would  probably  be  glad  to  avail  them- 
selves of  the  opportunity  to  receive  part-time  instruc- 
tion if  it  were  offered  immediately  upon  their  leaving  the 
elementary  schools,  but  after  a  lapse  of  years  in  industry 
it  will  be  difficult  to  induce  them  to  take  the  training. 


282    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

3.  A  Comparison  of  the  Difficulties  Encountered 
in  the  Erection  and  Further  Development  of 
Industrial   Schools   in  the  Two  Countries,     (a) 

Attitude  of  Labor  Organizations.  In  the  year  1901 
the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Labor  made 
an  extended  inquiry  into  the  attitude  of  labor 
organizations  toward  industrial  education.  The 
summarized  answers  as  given  below  are  found  in 
the  Seventeenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Commissioner 
of  Labor,  1902,  "Trade  and  Technical  Education," 
pp.  413-421. 

Barbers.  From  the  first  establishment  of  schools 
for  barbers,  the  unions  and  the  craft  generally  have 
been  strongly  opposed  to  them.  The  main  reasons 
assigned  are  that  the  work  of  the  schools  is  not  thor- 
ough, and  that  such  schools  increased  unduly  the 
number  of  barbers. 

Bricklayers.  Generally  speaking,  neither  unions 
nor  the  individual  members  thereof  would  be  opposed 
to  trade  schools  which  are  open  only  to  apprentices 
or  workmen,  but  schools  which  take  in  boys  outside 
the  trades  and  attempt  to  make  mechanics  of  them 
are  strongly  opposed.  Such  schools  help  to  create 
an  abnormal  supply  of  embryo  workmen,  and  this 
tends  to  make  the  position  of  the  skilled  mechanic 
less  secure  and  has  a  depressing  effect  upon  wages. 
An  apprenticeship  of  four  years  is  usually  required, 
and  the  unions  limit  the  number  of  apprentices  em- 
ployed in  the  trade.  In  one  place  the  local  union 
deducts  one  year  from  the  regular  period  of  apprentice- 
ship in  the  case  of  trade  school  graduates.  As  to 
the  question  of  sending  their  boys  to  trade  schools, 


Period  of  Transition  283 

the  consensus  of  opinion  of  the  labor  union  men  is 
generally  opposed  to  boys  learning  trades,  and  if 
possible  to  prevent  it,  but  if  no  other  opportunities 
offer,  to  send  boys  to  such  schools  as  are  run  in  con- 
nection with  actual  work  at  a  trade  at  the  same  time. 

Carpenters  and  Joiners.  Generally  speaking,  the 
unions  have  given  neither  moral  nor  pecuniary  aid 
to  trade  schools,  but,  on  the  contrary  have  opposed 
them,  and  the  individual  members  are  usually  averse 
to  the  idea  of  such  schools. 

Electrical  Workers.  Both  the  unions  and  the  indi- 
vidual members  are  opposed  to  trade  schools  on  the 
ground  that  they  are  not  practical.  It  is  claimed  that 
they  turn  out  a  cheap  class  of  workmen,  who  accept 
employment  regardless  of  the  wages  paid,  and  thereby 
make  trouble  for  the  regular  journeymen. 

Garment  Workers.  As  there  seems  to  be  a  super- 
abundance of  apprentices  in  every  trade  which  guar- 
antees a  fair  wage,  and  as  this  is  a  great  obstacle 
which  unions  have  to  contend  with  in  regulating 
conditions,  it  would  appear  that  trade  schools  would 
tend  still  further  to  depress  wages  and  add  to  the 
number  of  unemployed  by  thrusting  into  the  ranks 
large  numbers  of  boys  and  young  men  in  addition  to 
those  who  are  added  through  the  natural  channels. 
The  national  union  has  never  given  such  schools  any 
moral  or  pecuniary  aid,  because  in  the  tailoring  and 
cutting  branches  the  supply  of  apprentices  is  more 
than  the  interests  of  the  trade  demand.  In  the 
tailoring  branch,  the  ranks  of  the  tailors  are  continu- 
ally reinforced  by  immigrants  who  quickly  learn  the 
minor  parts  of  the  trade  in  the  thousand  of  sweat 
shops  which  are  conducted  by  petty  contractors  who 
themselves  have  been  here  only  a  short  while. 


284   Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

Granite  Cutters.  The  Unions  limit  the  number  of 
apprentices  employed  in  the  trade,  and  an  apprentice- 
ship of  three,  years  is  required.  Trade  or  technical 
education  of  any  kind  will  not  help  a  young  man  to 
become  a  journeyman  in  a  shorter  time,  but  it  will 
add  to  his  general  intelligence  and  in  the  end  will 
enable  him  to  rise  higher  in  the  industrial  scale.  The 
unions  have  never  given  any  aid  to  trade  schools, 
but  they  are  not  opposed  to  them  when  their  courses 
are  open  only  to  those  who  are  actually  employed  in 
trade  work. 

Machinists.  In  this  trade  the  consensus  of  opinion 
seems  to  be  that  trade  or  technical  schools  are  valu- 
able to  workingmen  when  conducted  for  the  purpose 
of  educating  and  training  young  men  to  become  skilled 
in  a  trade,  but  when  used  as  a  means  for  providing 
a  class  of  cheap  help  to  supplant  union  mechanics  in 
times  of  labor  troubles,  they  are  a  detriment. 

Plumbers,  Gasfitters,  and  Steamfitters.  The  labor 
unions  and  their  representative  members  are  strongly 
opposed  to  trade  school  education  as  applied  to  these 
trades,  on  the  ground  that  too  much  time  is  devoted 
to  theoretical  work  and  too  little  to  that  which  is 
practical.  It  is  said  that  employers  prefer  trade 
school  graduates  because  they  will  work  cheaply. 
This  is  a  source  of  trouble  to  the  unions. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  idea  of  industrial 
education  is  becoming  so  popular,  the  labor  organi- 
zations have  been  made  to  recognize  that  it  is  ab- 
solutely necessary  to  take  a  new  attitude  toward 
the  subject.  Unless  a  different  position  was  taken, 
the  unions  would  lose  in  large  part  the  sympathy 


Period  of  Transition  285 

of  the  people.  Certain  employers'  organizations, 
manufacturers'  associations,  and  philanthropists 
began  to  present  the  idea  to  the  people  that  unions 
were  preventing  the  boys  from  learning  a  trade, 
and  that  such  prevention  was  wrong,  unjust,  and 
un-American. 

This  changed  situation  has  thrown  the  unions 
into  a  state  of  embarrassment.  In  fact,  no  one 
seems  to  be  able  to  foresee  how  this  contest  over 
the  control  of  the  coming  industrial  schools  will 
be  settled.  If  one  will  read  the  literature  and 
letters  from  labor  leaders  given  out  in  recent  years 
by  the  National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
Industrial  Education,  as  well  as  the  statements 
made  by  representatives  of  the  Knights  of  Labor 
of  the  American  Federation  of  Labor,  etc.,  his 
attention  cannot  fail  to  be  attracted  by  the  repeated 
attempts  made  to  change  the  opinion  held  by  the 
people  that  the  unions  are  opposed  to  trade  schools. 
A  recent  statement  from  John  Golden,  President 
of  the  United  Textile  Workers  of  America,  is 
quite  characteristic: 

The  impression  seems  to  prevail  in  many  quarters 
that  organized  labor  is  opposed  to  the  movement  of 
higher  education  along  industrial  lines.  It  is  my 
purpose  to  show  that  such  is  not  the  case  by  any 
means,  but  that  labor  unions  have  lent  their  aid  and 
moral  support  to  this  movement.  I  am  frank  enough 
to  admit  that  organized  labor  has  on  some  occasions 
opposed  the  so-called  "trade  schools"  when  these 
schools  were  run  with  no  other  object  in  view  but  to 


286    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

reap  profit  from  those  whom  they  were  supposed  to 
teach.1 

Introductory  statements  of  the  type  of  that 
just  quoted,  always  lead  one  to  suspect  that  some 
definite  policy  will  be  set  forth  and  some  carefully 
formulated  plans  presented.  But  in  this  expecta- 
tion one  is  generally  disappointed.  If  he  reads 
the  articles  to  the  close,  he  has  the  feeling  that 
the  unionist  is  fully  convinced  that  the  trade 
school  is  coming,  and  that  he  is  trying  to  square 
himself  with  an  inevitable  condition. 

If  one  were  to  attempt  to  summarize  briefly 
the  present  wishes  of  the  unionists,  there  would 
be  practical  unanimity  on  the  following  points: 

(i)  The  unions  are  opposed  to  trade  schools 
being  run  by  private  corporations,  or  manufac- 
turing concerns,  or  under  the  auspices  of  either. 

(2)  They  are  opposed  to  trade  schools  which 
attempt  to  turn  out  full-fledged  journeymen. 

(3)  Recognizing  now  that  the  intelligent  wage 
earner  has  a  great  advantage  in  the  increased  power 
of  production,  and  that  the  more  skilled  a  craft 
is,  the  more  respect  it  can  win  from  the  outside 
world,  and  the  more  powerful  it  will  be  in  contests 
against  the  employers,  the  unions  favor  some 
system  of  education,  especially  public  night 
schools,  at  which  the  attendance  is  limited  to  those 
in  the  trade  only. 

1  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social 
Science,  vol.  xxxiii.,  p.  185,  January,  1909. 


Period  of  Transition  287 

(4)  The  unions  want  to  control  the  number  of 
apprentices,  and  fix  the  time  of  apprenticeship. 

(5)  They  favor  public  control  of  all  trade  schools, 
with  representatives  of  labor  on  the  board  of 
trustees. 

Unless  (1)  and  (2)  are  conceded  to  the  unions, 
such  graduates  can  be  used  as  strike  breakers  in 
times  of  labor  disputes,  or  at  other  times  they  will 
tend  to  glut  the  labor  market,  reduce  wages,  and 
prevent  the  obtaining  of  a  shorter  day;  while 
(3)>  (4)7  and  (5)  certainly  do  represent  in  a  general 
way  the  wishes  of  the  unions,  yet  the  hope  of 
getting  such  terms  seems  so  far  off  and  unattain- 
able that  it  has  not  been  possible,  up  to  the  present 
date  for  the  unions  to  set  up  a  fixed  program, 
j  That  the  labor  organizations  are  struggling 
over  this  industrial  school  question  with  all  their 
might,  is  fully  shown  by  the  report  on  Industrial 
Education  published  in  1909  by  the  American 
Federation  of  Labor,  which  in  America  gives 
the  highest  and  most  representative  statement  of 
Labor's  view.  Nothing  is  more  interesting  than 
to  note  the  change  of  attitude  that  labor  organiza- 
tions are  taking  toward  industrial  education. 
The  committee  appointed  to  consider  this  question 
is  in  itself  an  index  of  the  importance  that  is  at- 
tached to  the  problem.  The  following  composed 
the  committee: 

John  Mitchell,  Chairman;  former  President, 
United  Mine  Workers  of  America. 

Frank    Duffy,    Secretary;    Secretary,    United 


288    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

Brotherhood  of  Carpenters  and  Joiners  of  America. 

Samuel  Gompers;  President,  American  Federa- 
tion of  Labor. 

James  Duncan;  Secretary,  Granite  Cutters  In- 
ternational Association. 

James  O'Connell;  President,  International  As- 
sociation of  Machinists. 

John  B.  Lennon;  Secretary,  Journeymen  Tailors 
Union  of  America. 

Franc  Morrison;  Secretary,  American  Federa- 
tion of  Labor. 

Hon.  W.  B.  Wilson;  Member  of  Congress 
(Washington,  D.  C). 

Charles  P.  Neill;  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Labor. 

Mrs.  Raymond  Robins;  President,  Women's 
Trade  Union  League. 

Miss  Agnes  Nestor;  Secretary,  International 
Glove  Workers  Union  of  America. 

Rev.  Charles  Stelzle;  Superintendent,  Depart- 
ment of  Church  and  Labor  (Presbyterian  Church). 

John  Golden ;  President,  United  Textile  Workers 
of  America. 

Hugh  Frayne;  General  Organizer,  American 
Federation  of  Labor. 

Edward  Hirsch ;  Editor,  Baltimore  Labor  Leader. 

Stuart  Reid;  General  Organizer,  American 
Federation  of  Labor. 

James  E.  Roach;  General  Organizer,  American 
Federation  of  Labor. 

James  Wilson;  President,  Pattern  Makers 
League  of  North  America. 


Period  of  Transition  289 

Charles  H.  Winslow;  Member,  former  Massa- 
chusetts Commission  on  Industrial  Education. 

That  the  attempt  to  get  at  the  facts  is  sincere 
is  shown  by  the  appointment  to  this  committee  of 
highly  competent  authorities  on  industrial  educa- 
tion. At  the  Convention  held  in  Toronto,  Canada, 
November,  1909,  this  committee  recommended 
that  the  principles  of  industrial  work  be  taught 
in  connection  with  the  public  school  system.  This 
instruction  was  to  be  especially  suited  to  the 
requirements  and  comprehension  of  children  be- 
tween the  ages  of  fourteen  and  sixteen.  In  order 
that  the  schools  might  be  kept  in  close  connection 
with  the  practical  work,  it  was  recommended  that 
there  be  appointed  an  advisory  board,  which  was 
to  be  composed  of  representatives  of  the  various 
trades,  including  both  employers  and  workmen. 
The  system  of  instruction  in  private  schools  was 
not  to  be  commended.  Suggestions  were  made 
as  to  what  ought  to  be  put  in  the  curriculum. 
It  is  of  especial  interest  to  note  that  the  rights  of 
the  workmen  were  always  stressed,  the  duties  of 
the  workmen  were  hardly  mentioned. 

In  1909,  the  author  wrote  to  the  superintendent 
of  one  of  the  leading  trade  schools  of  the  country 
to  find  out  what  the  attitude  of  the  trade  unions 
was  toward  his  school.  At  that  time  the  super- 
intendent reported  that  the  attitude  of  the  unions 
was  unfriendly.  Some  months  ago  I  wrote  to 
him  again  to  learn  whether  there  had  been  any 
change  in  this  attitude.  Under  the  date  of  March 
19 


290    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

9,    1 9 14,    my   correspondent   sent   the   following 
interesting  communication : 

I  can  observe  no  change  in  the  attitude  of  the  labor 
unions  towards  the  trade  school  idea;  or  rather  an 
assumption  of  a  more  liberal  attitude  towards  the 
admission  of  boys  to  the  trades.  If  there  has  been 
any  change,  it  is  in  the  opposite  direction — the  tend- 
ency being  to  adopt  a  more  restrictive  policy.  It  is 
true  that  the  American  Federation  of  Labor  has  gone 
on  record  as  favoring  vocational  education,  but  only 
when  conducted  under  the  auspices  of  the  public 
school  authorities.  That  action  on  the  part  of  the 
American  Federation  of  Labor  would  lead  one  to 
believe  that  the  labor  organizations  were  undergoing 
a  change  of  heart.  But  the  same  rules  and  regula- 
tions prevail  to  keep  as  many  as  possible  from  en- 
tering the  trades.  The  unions  endorse  the  plan  of 
educating,  at  public  expense,  the  few  apprentices  they 
see  fit  to  admit  into  the  trades;  they  offer  no  objection 
to  those  unconnected  with  any  trade  from  also  enjoy- 
ing the  benefits  of  such  courses — it  would  not  be 
politic  for  them  to  do  otherwise.  And  yet  none  of 
the  latter  class  stand  any  chance  of  securing  admis- 
sion to  the  trades.  Some  time  ago  I  was  talking  to 
the  principal  of  one  of  the  vocational  schools,  and  he 
told  me  that  when  about  to  inaugurate  a  certain  trade 
course,  the  union  in  that  trade  offered  to  endorse  the 
course  and  compel  the  apprentices  to  attend,  provided 
the  class  was  restricted  to  those  already  in  the  trade. 
Needless  to  say,  their  proposition  was  not  accepted. 
A  boy  may  decide  that  he  wants  to  learn  a  trade;  he 
may  devote  several  years  to  learning  the  trade;  he 
may  even  find,  on  the  completion  of  his  course,  an 


Period  of  Transition  291 

employer  who  is  willing  to  give  him  a  job,  but  the 
limitations  of  the  union  in  the  matter  of  apprentices 
debar  him.  States  and  municipalities  are  spending 
large  sums  of  money  for  vocational  training,  but 
considerable  will  be  wasted  until  the  avenues  of 
employment  are  opened  to  the  boys. 

Despite  the  present  favorable  attitude  on  the 
part  of  the  American  Federation  of  Labor,  there 
are  still  many  in  labor's  ranks  who  have  not  been 
lined  up  with  the  present  industrial  school  move- 
ment. This  is  well  shown  by  the  results  of  an 
investigation  conducted  in  19 10  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  Labor  of  New  York  State.  Only  about 
one-half  of  the  secretaries  of  2451  unions  reported 
themselves  as  favorable  to  the  establishment  of 
public  industrial  schools.  The  remainder  did  not 
reply  or  were  opposed. 

One  of  the  leading  authorities  in  this  country 
has  summarized  the  situation  in  this  way. 

It  is  the  old  question  of  a  struggle  to  control  the 
labor  market.  I  know  that  there  are  disinterested 
employers  and  a  few  wise  labor  leaders,  but  the 
former  want  "an  army  of  trained  and  willing  workers" 
and  the  latter  are  suspicious.  I  cannot  heJp  feeling 
that, while  labor  is  "coming  across,"  it  is  still  interested 
in  controlling  rather  than  promoting  industrial  edu- 
cation. They  would  rather  not  have  it,  but,  if  it 
must  come,  they  want  it  on  labor's  terms.  Laborers 
in  this  country  have  not  fully  realized  the  necessity 
of  having  the  right  kind  of  education.  They  want 
the  same  kind  of  education  as  the  "lawyers"  and 


292    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

think  that  it  will  enable  them  to  run  things.  Labor 
feels  that  industrial  education  like  "scientific  manage- 
ment" strikes,  or  may  strike  at  the  very  heart  of 
"organized  labor."  They  are  pinning  their  faith 
first  to  organized  effort  and  organization  must  be 
protected  at  any  cost.  Hence,  "Lookout  for  indus- 
trial education." 

At  this  juncture,  it  may  be  well  to  ask  why  it 
is  that  the  adjustment  of  the  attitude  of  labor 
unions  toward  industrial  schools  will  be  so  difficult 
in  the  United  States,  whereas  in  Germany  labor 
organizations  are  not  only  in  sympathy  with  such 
schools,  but  as  a  rule  aid  them  in  every  way 
possible.  The  answer  is  this — in  Germany  this 
difficult  problem  has  been  solved.  The  number 
of  apprentices  in  a  workshop  or  factory  is  carefully 
regulated  by  law.  From  the  fact  that  nearly  all 
the  apprentices,  except  those  known  as  "unskilled 
workers,"  receive  no  wages,1  or  an  insignificant 
sum  (sometimes  ioo  Marks  at  the  close  of  a  three- 
year  apprenticeship)  it  cannot  be  charged  that 
the  schools  turn  out  "half  baked"  journeymen 
who  depress  the  wages. 

An  adjustment  such  as  obtains  in  Germany  is 
still  far  from  accomplishment  in  the  United  States. 
Here  capital  and  labor  are  each  trying  to  take 
advantage  of  the  other.  Capital  is  interested  in 
having  trade  schools,  in  increasing  the  supply  of 

1  In  some  of  the  choice  trades  the  apprentice  actually  pays  the 
employer. 


Period  of  Transition  293 

skilled  labor,  and,  finally,  in  securing  the  highest 
possible  skill  for  the  lowest  possible  price.  Labor 
tries  constantly  to  diminish  the  number  of  skilled 
workers,  and  to  raise  the  wages  as  high  as  possible. 
In  fact,  many  local  instances  of  the  greatest  un- 
reasonableness could  be  cited.1 

The  temperament  of  the  German  and  American 
boy  is  entirely  different.  The  former  seems  fairly 
contented  to  work  three  years  for  practically 
nothing,  and,  as  a  rule,  is  willing  to  remain  in  the 
same  trade.  In  other  words,  he  has  learned  to 
do  what  he  is  told,  and  to  accept  the  place  in  society 
that  his  environment  has  fixed  for  him.  Hence 
he  does  not  represent  in  the  industrial  world  a 
potential  factor  of  chronic  unrest.  The  latter  has 
opinions  of  his  own,  he  is  anxious  to  get  big  wages 
just  as  quickly  as  possible,  he  wants  to  keep  chang- 
ing jobs  in  the  hope  of  doing  better,2  and  would, 

1  In  Butte,  Montana,  in  1904,  the  wages  for  members  of  the 
plumbers'  union  were  $6.50  per  day  of  eight  hours,  and  double 
pay  on  Saturday  afternoon.  They  struck  for  $7.50  per  day. 
After  four  months,  a  compromise  was  affected  whereby  $7.25 
was  agreed  upon  as  the  wage.  Despite  the  fact  that  there  was 
a  positive  lack  of  workers  and  that  the  people  were  in  need,  the 
union  refused  to  take  on  apprentices.  The  plasterers  were  getting 
$7.50  per  day,  but  saw  a  chance  to  take  advantage  of  the  people. 
And  so  the  union  struck  for  $8.50  per  day.  In  both  cases  the 
unions  were  so  powerful  that  non-union  labor  could  not  be  intro- 
duced, hence  the  people  were  at  the  union's  mercy. 

2  "There  is  a  tendency,  especially  on  the  part  of  young  help, 
to  leave  without  notice  for  a  small  increase  of  pay,  and  this  pro- 
duces a  situation  which  is  almost  intolerable." — "Opinion  of 
Manufacturers,"  Second  Annual  Report  of  Massachusetts  Com- 
mission on  Industrial  Education,  p.  621. 


294    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

as  a  rule,  consider  an  apprenticeship  of  three  years 
without  pay  entirely  out  of  the  question.1  In 
fact,  a  large  percentage  of  the  boys  are  already 
earning  good  wages  at  the  age  of  sixteen  or  eighteen. 
To  put  into  operation  in  the  United  States  the 
German  system  of  handling  these  boys  would 
be  so  powerfully  resented  by  the  boys  and  their 
parents  that  as  yet  no  one  thinks  of  suggesting  it. 
However,  in  time  something  like  the  German  plan 
will  have  to  be  introduced.  If  the  population 
increases  faster  than  the  arts  advance,  the  social 
pressure  will  become  more  intense,  and  this  will 
necessitate  greater  discipline  and  sharper  restric- 
tion of  rights.  The  privileges  of  the  individual 
will  have  to  yield  to  the  interest  of  the  group. 

When  we  come  to  consider  the  trade  school  (see 
page  128),  it  is  in  Germany  instead  of  the  United 
States  that  opposition  finds  expression.  Ger- 
many has  not  yet  been  able  to  devise  any  scheme 
by  which  these  graduates  can  be  kept  from  depress- 
ing wages.  To  use  the  same  method  as  is  em- 
ployed in  the  industrial  continuation  school  is 
not  at  all  practicable.     The  elements  that  would 

1  "Many  of  us  are  not  taking  on  apprentices,  and  we  realize 
that  the  situation  is  rapidly  growing  worse.  *  Competition  is 
so  keen,  and  the  average  boy  attainable  is  so  untrustworthy  that 
we  cannot  afford  to  take  on  apprentices;  it  would  be  a  losing 
game  financially.  Apprenticeship  has  failed  largely  because  there 
seems  to  be  no  sense  of  responsibility  in  either  the  boy  or  his 
parents.  The  American  boy  has  little  to  recommend  him  besides 
his  general  intelligence,  his  chief  faults  are  that  he  is  bumptious, 
and  he  regards  hard  work,  especially  if  it  is  dirty,  as  degrading." 
— Ibid.,  p.  622. 


Period  of  Transition  295 

enter  into  the  solution  of  the  problem  are  so 
complex  that  no  general  system  could  do  justice 
to  the  situation. 

That  no  opposition  to  this  type  of  graduate  has 
arisen  thus  far  in  the  United  States,  does  not  mean 
that  the  problem  has  been  solved !  It  only  means 
that  the  educational  standard  and  the  number  of 
this  class  of  graduates  has  not  yet  reached  a  point 
where  competition  has  been  able  to  make  itself 
felt.  When  the  United  States  gets  to  that  point, 
it  will  very  likely  find  itself  as  fully  unprepared 
for  the  solution  as  Germany  now  seems  to  be. 

The  United  States  is  in  an  era  of  tremendous 
trade  and  industrial  expansion,  and  unimpeded 
opportunities  for  this  type  of  graduate  have 
always  presented  themselves.  One  could  easily 
show  that  up  to  the  present  the  supply  has  never 
been  equal  to  the  demand. 

(b)  Education  for  the  Negroes.  To  give  the 
American  negro  an  industrial  education  is  a  prob- 
lem attended  by  difficulties  that  find  no  parallel 
in  Germany.  When  industrial  education  was 
first  introduced  into  the  South,  it  was  not  well 
received  by  the  negroes,1  because  they  got  the 
idea  that  it  was  intended  for  them  only  in  con- 
tradistinction to  the  higher  or  literary  instruction 
which  was  to  be  confined  to  the  whites.  "It  was 
assumed  by  many  persons  that  industrial  education 
would  teach  him  to  be  contented,  to  occupy  a 

1  Anderson,  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political 
and  Social  Science,  vol.  xxxiii.,  January,  1909,  p.  112. 


296    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

menial  position,  and  to  be  forever  a  'hewer  of 
wood  and  a  drawer  of  water.'  "x  But  since  the 
white  people  of  the  South  have  become  enthusi- 
astic for  just  the  sort  of  industrial  education  that 
was  once  looked  down  upon  as  degrading,  the 
negroes'  attitude  toward  it  has  changed.  Hence 
the  difficulty  solved  itself. 

As  fast  as  old  problems  are  solved,  new  ones 
develop.  While  industrial  education  makes  the 
negro  more  independent  and  more  ambitious,  it 
also  seems  to  increase  the  hatred  between  the 
races,  because  it  enables  the  negro  to  compete  in 
the  higher  classes  of  labor.  For  this  very  reason 
there  has  always  been  a  strong  party  in  the  South 
which  has  advocated  that  the  best  way  to  solve 
the  negro  problem  is  to  keep  the  negro  ignorant. 
That  is  one  of  the  great  reasons  why  the  Southern 
States  cannot  pass  a  compulsory  education  law 
for  the  white  children  alone,  and  they  are  de- 
termined to  educate  the  blacks  just  as  little  as 
possible. 

Some  time  ago  I  wrote  Rev.  Anderson,  who  is  in 
charge  of  one  of  the  largest  industrial  colored 
schools  in  Philadelphia,  asking  the  question,"  Does 
race  prejudice  make  it  hard  for  your  graduates 
to  get  work  in  the  skilled  trades?"  His  answer  is, 
''It  is  very  hard  along  certain  lines.  While  trade 
unions  claim  not  to  discriminate  against  colored 
workmen,  they  practically  debar  them  from  their 
ranks   by   a   thousand   flimsy   excuses.     Colored 

1  Booker  T,  Washington,  Ibid.,  p.  9. 


Period  of  Transition  297 

men  apply  for  jobs  and  are  refused,  the  real  reason 
being  that  they  are  negroes."  This  report  fully 
corresponds  with  what  is  well  known  to  be  the 
case  in  many  other  places  where  the  negro  seeks 
to  enter  the  higher  grades  of  work. 

The  South  has  always  boasted  of  the  fact  that 
whites  and  blacks  work  so  peacefully  side  by  side. 
This  is  true  when  both  are  engaged  in  unskilled 
labor,  but  incidents  are  rapidly  accumulating  to 
show  that  it  is  not  true  when  the  work  requires 
any  degree  of  skill.1 

In  1909,  there  occurred  the  fiercest  strikes  on 
the  Georgia  Railroad  and  Southern  Pacific  Roads, 
occasioned  by  the  fact  that  the  white  firemen 
wanted  to  get  rid  of  the  negro  firemen.  A  power- 
ful movement  was  on  foot  in  Tennessee  to  get 
rid  of  the  negro  miners.  Some  of  the  better  class 
hotels  are  doing  away  with  the  negro  waiters, 
and  that  was  always  supposed  to  be  a  field  for 
which  the  negro  was  especially  adapted.  This 
process  of  closing  the  doors  to  negro  workers  is 
going  on  in  many  other  occupations. 

No  doubt  just  as  soon  as  the  idea  gets  abroad 
more  fully  in  the  South  that  industrial  education 

*The  Charleston  News  and  Courier  of  August,  1908,  says:  "The 
Southerner  is  jealous  of  the  entrance  of  the  negro  into  a  trade 
that  has  been  reserved  to  the  whites,  and  the  opening  of  a  white 
factory  to  negro  labor  excites  him  and  drives  him  to  violence. 
In  the  North  nearly  all  trades  are  reserved  to  the  whites,  hence 
all  the  negroes  are  eyed  with  suspicion,  because  the  Northerner 
is  vaguely  conscious  that  the  negro  threatens  his  industrial 
position," 


298   Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

will  make  the  negro  a  competitor  in  all  kinds  of 
skilled  labor,  the  whole  movement  will  meet  to  a 
certain  extent  a  reaction. 

The  number  of  lynchings  in  late  years  has  shown 
quite  an  increase,  and  to  the  astonishment  of  the 
Nation  has  spread  even  to  the  North.1  Espe- 
cially noteworthy  is  the  mention  of  the  lynching 
of  dozens  of  negroes  in  Ohio  and  Illinois  during 
the  years  1908  and  1909.  These  occurrences  have 
the  effect  of  causing  many  people  to  doubt  the 
advisability  of  affording  the  negro  an  industrial 
education.  Another  class  of  people  in  the  South 
firmly  believe  that  "the  negro  race  is  not  adapted 
to  any  line  of  work  that  requires  faithfulness 
and  continuity  of  purpose."  This  expression  was 
used  in  a  letter  directed  to  the  author  by  one  of 
the  most  eminent  college  presidents  of  the  South. 
While  I  was  teaching  in  Mississippi,  I  heard  that 
very  sentiment  expressed,  and  I  am  sure  it  repre- 
sents the  feeling  of  a  large  percentage  of  the  white 
population  of  the  South.  To  cite  one  of  the 
numerous  arguments  advanced  to  establish  this 
theory:  A  few  cotton  mills  were  organized  with  a 
view  of  giving  employment  to  negroes,  but  every 
such  mill  has  failed  because  the  negro  laborer 
was  not  competent  to  do  the  work.  But  in  what 
this  incompetency  consisted  is  the  point  of  dispute. 
One  side  claims  that  by  training  schools,  etc.,  the 
mills  can  in  time  be  run  by  negro  labor;  the  other 

T"The  Negro  Problem  Becoming  National,"  Literary  Digest, 
August  29,  1908. 


Period  of  Transition  299 

side  obstinately  maintains  to  this  very  day  that 
there  are  race  differences  that  make  it  impossible 
for  the  negro  ever  to  reach  a  standard  enabling 
the  employment  of  any  large  number  of  the  race 
in  highly  skilled  labor. 

When  we  consider  that  these  are  the  questions 
that  absorb  so  large  a  part  of  the  attention  of 
Southern  people,  then  it  becomes  quite  clear  that, 
despite  the  great  discussion  concerning  industrial 
education,  the  full  installation  of  a  system  ap- 
proaching in  thoroughness  that  obtaining  in 
Germany  is  still  several  decades  off,  and  just  what 
form  such  industrial  education  will  finally  take 
when  it  becomes  general,  one  would  scarcely  dare 
prophesy. 

(c)  Over  Education.  By  " over-educated"  people 
we  mean  those  who  are  no  longer  willing  to  work 
when  they  have  reached  a  plane  of  education  which 
should  enable  them  to  be  of  the  most  service  to 
themselves  and  society.  It  is  a  mistaken  ambition 
that  leads  people  to  try  to  rise  to  stations  already 
overcrowded,  simply  because  of  supposed  social 
advantages.  Both  Germany  and  the  United 
States  have  to  deal  with  the  problem  of  "over- 
education,"  but  in  the  latter  country  the  problem 
is  a  more  pressing  one. 

Several  of  the  directors  of  the  continuation 
schools  have  called  the  author's  attention  to  the 
fact  that  they  had  to  be  constantly  on  their  guard 
so  to  devise  the  curriculum,  and  especially  the 
method  of  instruction,  that  the  boys  and  girls 


300   Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

might  not  harbor  the  impression  that  they  were 
above  manual  labor.  If  the  educational  standard 
of  the  pupils  rises  faster  than  the  corresponding 
standard  that  dignifies  labor,  ''over-education" 
will  always  result.  For  Germany,  that  would 
cause  a  strong  immigration  from  "Galatzien"  and 
"Russland."  Hence  it  is  ever  a  problem  so  to 
teach  the  coming  generation  that  it  will  not 
consider  itself  above  manual  labor  and  yet  will 
be  as  skilled  as  possible. 

On  more  than  one  occasion  when  the  author 
has  visited  industrial  continuation  schools,  the 
directors,  in  conducting  him  to  some  class,  say 
in  blacksmithing,  have  apologized  for  the  work 
done,  explaining  that  the  students  were  by  nature 
the  dullest  in  the  school.  The  brighter  ones  were 
studying  bookkeeping  or  some  branch  that  would 
give  them  a  better  social  position,  would  enable 
them  to  sit  in  an  office  and  wear  a  collar;  and  yet 
often  this  group  would  get  for  a  long  period  of 
time  only  a  nominal  remuneration  or  no  remunera- 
tion at  all.  On  the  other  hand,  the  boy  studying 
blacksmithing  would  get  good  wages  from  the 
start,  and  a  skilled  mechanic  would  a  ways  secure 
more  than  the  one  who  took  the  bookkeeping 
course.  Now  whenever  this  striving  on  the  part 
of  the  pupil  goes  too  far,  the  nation  is  not  realizing 
the  greatest  strength  from  its  people,  or  the  schools 
are  not  rendering  the  greatest  possible  service  in 
failing  to  prevent  the  young  from  being  discon- 
tented with  their  lot  in  life. 


Period  of  Transition  301 

The  Reports  of  Commissioner  Draper  of  New- 
York  and  the  Moseley  Education  Commission 
Reports  show  that  there  is  a  great  deal  of  this 
"over-education"  in  the  United  States.  In  this 
very  connection,  we  might  point  out  that  a  teacher 
in  one  of  the  largest  endowed  schools  in  America 
told  the  author  that  this  very  problem  of  "over- 
education"  was  of  the  greatest  concern  to  the 
school  authorities.  Some  years  ago  the  school 
in  question  installed  the  finest  equipment  for 
teaching  trades.  Under  the  enthusiasm  engen- 
dered at  the  time,  half  the  boys  of  the  school  took 
the  trade  courses;  but  after  leaving  school  they 
had  to  put  on  overalls  and  their  hands  were  soiled 
from  the  oil  of  machinery.  The  result  was  that 
very  few  remained  in  the  trades,  but  sought  in- 
stead positions  as  clerks.  At  present,  the  trade 
equipment  is  practically  idle.  Nearly  all  the 
boys  are  studying  bookkeeping,  although  they 
are  well  aware  that  in  less  than  ten  years  after 
graduation,  the  boy  who  took  the  trade  course 
will  be  earning  much  more  than  the  bookkeeper. 

Some  of  the  teachers  who  have  had  charge  of 
the  domestic  science  in  our  more  aristocratic 
cities,  have  explained  that  it  was  very  difficult 
to  get  the  girls  to  enroll  in  the  cooking  classes 
because  they  consider  themselves  above  such  work. 
But  after  their  foolish  mothers  are  assured  that  the 
cooking  is  to  be  taught  only  as  an  intellectual 
quickener  and  that  the  daughters  will  not  really 
learn  how  to  cook,  parental  consent  for  the  enroll- 


302   Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

ment  of  their  daughters  in  the  proposed  course  is 
forthcoming. 

In  the  attempt  to  make  the  cooking  courses 
attractive,  the  school  kitchens  in  the  United 
States  are  often  elaborately  equipped.  The  result 
is  that  the  girls  who  do  take  the  cooking  courses 
conducted  with  such  expensive  equipment  say, 
when  they  get  home:  "Oh!  if  I  had  things  to  cook 
with  such  as  are  furnished  at  the  cooking  school, 
I'd  be  satisfied,  but  I  can't  do  anything  with  such 
traps  as  we  have  at  home."  This,  too,  is  a  kind 
of  "over-education."  Another  device  which  our 
American  cooking  schools  resort  to  in  order  to 
attract  girls  to  take  the  courses,  is  making  fancy 
cakes  and  expensive  and  rare  dishes. 

In  Germany  all  this  is  on  a  practical  basis. 
The  school  kitchen  is  simple,  plain,  but  thoroughly 
substantial.  The  equipment  doesn't  look  like  a 
play  house,  but  has  the  air  of  a  wholesome  and 
well-ordered  kitchen.  The  girls  are  not  spending 
their  time  in  dilettantism,  but  are  cooking  cabbage, 
beans,  pork,  and  all  in  the  right  proportions. 
They  are  being  prepared  in  a  most  practical  way 
to  deal  with  a  practical  world. 

When  immigration  to  the  United  States  grows 
less,  our  educational  ideas  will  have  to  undergo 
some  decided  changes  to  meet  the  demands  of 
housework  and  of  manual  labor.  As  it  is  now, 
native-born  Americans  are  always  trying  to  get 
the  higher  positions,  and  are  counting  on  the 
foreigners  to  do  the  drudgery. 


Period  of  Transition  303 

Fifty  years  ago,  the  Irish  dug  our  ditches,  built 
our  streets,  carried  the  hod;  but  now  we  have 
made  them  the  mayors  of  our  cities,  the  ward 
bosses.  The  Italians  are  taking  their  turn  at 
making  pavements,  and  doing  the  dirty  work  that 
nobody  else  will  do.  All  this  makes  it  quite 
clear  that  if  immigration  ceases,  our  educational 
system  will  at  once  have  to  assume  new 
obligations. 


XIX 

CONTROL  AND  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE   SCHOOLS   IN 
THE    TWO    COUNTRIES    CONTRASTED    AND 
COMPARED 

i.  Difference  in  Government.  In  the  United 
vStates  everything  depends  on  the  will  of  the  people, 
who  decide  things  by  majorities.  While  Ameri- 
cans believe  this  to  be  the  ideal  government, 
that,  in  the  long  run,  the  people  are  more  sure  to 
get  what  they  want  and  what  they  really  need,  and 
that  in  the  course  of  years  the  greatest  national 
self-reliance  and  national  security  can  be  built  on 
such  a  system;  yet  the  real,  far-seeing,  patriotic 
leaders  are  aware  that  it  is  not  without  its  draw- 
backs. Much  valuable  time,  effort,  and  expense  are 
often  wasted  before  the  majority  can  be  brought 
to  an  advanced  view  upon  a  question,  especially 
in  the  United  States,  where  there  are  so  many 
voters  who  know  nothing  at  all  about  educational 
issues.  The  people  have  to  be  led,  and  this  pro- 
cess is  accompanied  at  times  by  so  much  corrupt 
politics  that  the  outcome  often  seems  quite 
discouraging. 

Without  taking  up  the  question  of  the  advan- 
tages and  disadvantages  of  a  limited  monarchy, 

304 


Organization  Contrasted  305 

or  of  an  aristocratic  form  of  government,  we  will 
simply  cite  a  few  ways  in  which  the  governmental 
machinery  in  Germany  can  and  does  handle 
problems  that  would  be  well-nigh  impossible  in 
the  United  States. 

Prussia  passed  a  law  establishing  industrial 
and  commercial  schools  in  Posen  and  West  Prussia, 
made  the  attendance  compulsory,  and  arranged 
plans  whereby  good  teachers  might  be  secured 
for  the  schools.  All  this  was  done  quickly  without 
consulting  to  any  great  extent  the  provinces  af- 
fected. Now  in  the  United  States,  it  would  have 
been  necessary  to  wait  until  these  sections  passed 
the  laws  of  their  own  accord.  One  sees  at  once 
how  much  more  quickly  the  German  government 
can  act  than  is  possible  for  our  own.  Besides, 
the  expense  of  these  schools  was  assumed  by  the 
Empire.  That  would  not  be  the  case  in  the 
United  States.  The  national  government  would 
not  be  allowed  to  take  the  nation's  funds  and 
devote  them  to  the  needs  of  a  special  State  or 
group  of  States.  Such  an  act  would  be  unconsti- 
tutional. 

The  form  of  government  in  Germany  gives  the 
school  officials  a  prestige  that  enables  them  to 
carry  many  measures  and  go  much  farther  in  a 
shorter  time  than  would  be  possible  in  the  United 
States.  In  the  former  country,  school  matters 
are  discussed  by  the  professional  men,  and  the 
people  have  learned  to  have  a  certain  respect  for 
this  group  and  to  accept  rather  than  criticize  each 


306   Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

step  in  advance.1  With  us  everyone  discusses 
school  organization,  the  curriculum,  and  school 
laws,  whether  they  know  anything  about  the  mat- 
ters or  not.  For  this  reason  our  schools  are  so 
intermingled  with  politics. 

2.  In  the  United  States.  It  is  no  easy  task 
to  keep  up  with  the  legislation  affecting  voca- 
tional education  in  the  United  States.  Each 
year  records  great  advancement.  An  excellent 
summary  up  to  December,  191 2,  has  been  given 
by  John  A.  Lapp,  Secretary,  Indiana  Commission 
on  Industrial  and  Agricultural  Education  under 
the  title,  Present  Tendencies  in  Vocational  Educa- 
tion.    He  says:2 

We  have  made  wonderful  progress  during  the  past 
six  years  in  vocational  education,  both  in  theory  and 
practice.  Up  to  that  time  a  report  on  the  subject 
meant  a  discussion  of  European  experience.  We 
went  abroad  for  ideas  and  practical  plans  to  begin 
the  work  which  we  had  found  to  be  essential  to  our 
welfare.     This  country  offered  little  in  experience. 

Last  year  an  extensive  report  of  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Labor  was  confined  to  American  experience 
only  showing  how  far  we  have  come  in  that  short  space 
of  time.  In  the  hurry  to  make  up  for  the  negligence 
to  which  we  had  pleaded  guilty,  we  doubtless  have 

1  "The  German  people  have  a  great  faculty  of  obedience." 
— Marshall,  Principles  of  Economics,  p.  48. 

2  Bulletin  No.  16  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
Education  for  the  year  191 2. 


Organization  Contrasted         307 

committed  many  errors,  but  they  were  at  any  rate 
the  errors  of  honest  minds,  led  astray  by  zeal  for 
action. 

If  I  were  to  set  dates  when  the  new  era  began,  I 
should  without  hesitation  fix  April,  1906,  when  the 
Douglas  Commission  reported  in  Massachusetts,  and 
November,  1906,  when  the  National  Society  for  the 
Promotion  of  Industrial  Education  was  born. 

The  report  of  the  Douglas  Commission  disclosed 
a  condition  which  literally  made  the  state  and  the 
nation  "sit  up  and  take  notice."  The  authoritative 
statement  and  proof  of  facts  which  to  general  ob- 
servation had  long  been  plainly  evident  concerning 
the  small  benefit  from  the  schools  to  the  great  major- 
ity of  youth,  the  lack  of  preparation  for  skilled  work, 
the  tragic  career  of  the  unprepared  in  "dead  end" 
jobs,  and  the  great  need  which  industry  had  for  better 
trained  workmen,  made  it  certain  that  at  once  we 
must  recast  our  system  on  some  practical  basis  to 
serve  all  youth  and  not  merely  the  fortunate  few  who 
learned  the  things  of  the  book  and  entered  the  ranks 
of  the  professions. 

At  that  time,  the  National  Society  took  up  the 
burden  of  arousing  the  country  to  action.  The 
society  has  accomplished  that  end  effectively  and  in 
common  with  all  workers  their  attention  is  now 
wisely  directed  to  the  guidance  of  the  movement  so 
that  the  fullest  efficiency  may  result. 

Here  lies  the  task  of  the  future.  Great  movements 
have  come  to  naught  because  they  were  left  unguided 
at  critical  moments.  Fine  enthusiasms  have  often 
resulted  in  mere  vaporings  for  lack  of  organization  to 
translate  enthusiasm  into  wise  action,  and  guide  it 
effectively.     We  do  not  need  to  go  outside  of  the  very 


308    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

field  we  are  discussing  for  examples.  Manual  train- 
ing and  drawing  started  out  with  enthusiasm  to  be 
vocational  training.  But  they  were  not  guided  and 
they  have,  in  many  cases,  become  mere  "frills"  in 
vocational  training;  an  appetizer  or  "mustard  relish" 
as  the  Massachusetts  Commission  called  them. 

To  accomplish  our  purpose  of  building  on  solid 
and  permanent  foundations,  we  now  have  a  consider- 
able body  of  experience  in  a  half  dozen  States.  Mas- 
sachusetts and  New  York  have  been  working  on  the 
problem  with  energy  and  keen  insight  for  more  than 
six  years.  Wisconsin  has  had  a  state-wide  system 
about  a  year.  Connecticut  established  two  State 
schools  in  1909  directly  under  the  control  of  the  State. 
New  Jersey  has  been  giving  State  aid  for  many  years 
and  has  provided  for  a  State  deputy  to  have  charge  of 
the  work.  Ohio  permits  school  boards  to  make  the  part- 
time  day  school  compulsory  for  children  employed, 
and  Wisconsin  makes  it  compulsory  for  all  children 
employed  between  fourteen  and  sixteen.  Maine  had 
an  investigation  thru  the  State  superintendent  and 
now  offers  State  aid.  Michigan  had  an  investigation 
by  a  special  committee,  as  did  also  New  Jersey;  and 
this  year  Indiana  makes  its  entrance  into  the  field, 
thru  the  report  of  a  special  commission  on  industrial 
and  agricultural  education. 

Aside  from  official  action,  there  is  the  no  less  signi- 
ficant action  by  many  organizations,  such  as  the  Com- 
mercial Club  and  the  City  Club  of  Chicago,  which 
are  working  out  plans  for  definite  action. 

Doubtless  in  all  this  work  there  have  been  some 
mistakes.  It  would  be  strange  if  it  were  otherwise. 
It  is  a  new  problem  when  viewed  from  the  standpoint 
of  our  educational  system.     There  are  hundreds  of 


Organization  Contrasted  309 

different  vocations  each  needing  special  treatment 
but  susceptible  to  certain  groupings.  The  grasp  of 
all  of  the  minutiae  of  the  industries  and  the  relations 
which  education  bears  to  each,  cannot  be  gained  in  so 
brief  a  space  of  time.  The  danger  lies  in  emphasizing 
too  strongly  those  vocations  about  which  we  know  the 
most,  to  the  detriment  of  those  vocations  for  which 
our  education  has  had  little  significance.  We  have 
learned  something  of  how  to  deal  with  education  for 
carpenters,  machinists,  milliners,  a,nd  dressmakers,  but 
we  have  no  adequate  knowledge  of  how  to  educate  the 
millions  in  other  skilled  and  unskilled  employments. 
We  are,  however,  in  a  position  now  to  gather  up  the 
experience  which  the  different  States  and  cities  have 
had  in  charting  the  field  and  laying  the  foundations. 
No  single  State  is  sufficient  for  our  purposes.  Each 
has  had  its  peculiar  development  and  each  its  pecu- 
liar, separate  experiences.  Altogether  they  have  not 
more  than  touched  the  edges  of  the  problem,  but  so 
far  as  they  have  gone  their  experiences  should  be  our 
guide.  Pushing  on  from  where  they  now  stand,  this 
problem  can  be  solved  in  its  entirety  by  all  working 
together  in  systematic  and  sympathetic  cooperation. 

Points  of  General  Agreement 

It  would  be  tedious  to  present  the  points  to  which 
all  states  have  come  in  working  out  this  problem. 
There  is  general  agreement,  however,  on  some  phases. 
Among  them  may  be  mentioned : 

1.  State  supervision  thru  deputies  having  special 
qualifications  to  aid  in  establishing  schools  and  courses, 
to  give  advice  on  the  problems,  to  investigate  the 
possibilities  for  most  effective  training  and  to  guide 


310    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

the  movement  safely  to  practical  results.  Such  a 
deputy  is  provided  for  in  Massachusetts,  New  Jersey, 
New  York,  Wisconsin,  and  in  the  proposed  Indiana 
and  Illinois  laws.  The  general  education  law  of 
Pennsylvania  also  provides  such  a  deputy. 

2.  State  aid  is  given  in  Maine,  Massachusetts, 
New  Jersey,  New  York,  Wisconsin,  and  is  proposed 
in  Illinois  and  Indiana.  No  system  will  proceed  far 
without  it.  Vocational  education  is  a  State  and  not 
a  local  problem.  It  is  unfair  to  ask  a  city  or  town  to 
educate  skilled  workmen  who  may  migrate  and  carry 
away  all  the  city  or  town  has  given  them.  A  skilled 
worker  is  an  asset  to  the  locality,  the  State,  and  the 
nation  and  all  should  cooperate  in  paying  the  cost. 

3.  The  controlling  State  board  is  usually  made  to 
include  representatives  of  vocational  interests  as  well 
as  educators.  When  the  board  controls  merely  voca- 
tional education  the  vocational  interests  predominate ; 
where,  as  in  Indiana,  the  State  board  has  a  wide  range 
of  educational  duties  including  such  duties  as  approv- 
ing high  schools,  selecting  text-books,  etc.,  the  board 
is  properly  more  largely  filled  with  educators.  This 
is  a  problem  peculiar  to  each  State.  One  fact  is  uni- 
form. There  must  be  some  educators  on  the  board 
and  there  must  be  some  vocational  representatives. 
Their  proportion  is  a  local  question.  There  seems  to 
be  good  reason  for  saying  that  where  a  board  already 
exists  the  States  will  not  prefer  a  second  board  for 
vocational  education. 

4.  The  movement  began  in  Massachusetts  with 
separate  schools  under  separate  boards,  both  State 
and  local.  That  has  been  changed  to  permit  either 
a  separate  school  or  a  school  as  an  integral  part  of 
the  regular  school  system.     Wisconsin  has  adopted 


Organization  Contrasted         311 

the  separate  school  idea,  and  such  a  plan  is  proposed 
in  Illinois.  The  States  of  New  York,  New  Jersey, 
Ohio,  and  Maine  make  the  work  a  part  of  the  school 
system.  Indiana  follows  the  latter  group  but  re- 
quires, as  do  Massachusetts  and  New  York,  that  an 
advisory  committee  be  appointed  locally  to  aid  the 
school  board.  The  greater  ease  of  modifying  existing 
school  courses  to  meet  vocational  needs  and  the  greater 
harmony  resulting  makes  the  latter  seem  advisable. 
The  American  people  are  jealous  of  any  system  which 
separates  different  groups  into  classes  and  prefer  to 
have  all  education  run  along  without  too  much  evi- 
dence of  demarkation  between  the  different  groups  of 
students. 

5.  There  is  uniformity  in  requiring  children  to  be 
in  school  between  fourteen  and  sixteen  if  not  regularly 
employed.  Wisconsin  goes  further  and  requires 
them  to  return  to  the  school  at  least  five  hours  per 
week  for  further  instruction.  Ohio  grants  permission 
to  school  boards  to  compel  them  to  return  when 
vocational  schools  have  been  provided.  Indiana's 
commission  follows  the  latter  plan. 

Since  Mr.  Lapp's  article  has  appeared,  Indiana 
and  Pennsylvania  have  been  added  to  the  list  of 
States  that  have  installed  a  State  system  of  voca- 
tional education,  having  partial  State  control 
and  support. 

The  two  States  that  have  passed  the  most  ad- 
vanced legislation  upon  the  subject  are  Indiana 
and  Wisconsin.  Since  these  two  illustrate  two 
widely  different  systems  of  control,  the  provisions 
of  the  laws  of  each  will  be  presented  in  somewhat 


312    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

greater  detail.     The  chief  provisions  of  the  Indiana 
law  are  given  below: 

Establishment  of  Schools 

Sec.  2.  Any  school,  city,  town  or  township  may, 
through  its  board  of  school  comissioners  or  township 
trustee,  establish  vocational  schools  or  departments 
for  industrial,  agricultural  and  domestic  science  edu- 
cation in  the  same  manner  as  other  schools  and  de- 
partments are  established  and  may  maintain  the  same 
from  the  common  school  funds  or  from  a  special  tax 
levy  of  taxable  property,  or  partly  from  the  common 
school  funds  and  partly  from  such  tax.  Schools,  cities, 
towns  and  townships  are  authorized  to  maintain  and 
carry  on  instruction  in  elementary  domestic  science* 
industrial  and  agricultural  subjects  as  a  part  of  the 
regular  course  of  instruction. 

Classes — How  Divided 

Sec.  3.  In  order  that  instruction  in  the  principles 
and  practice  of  the  arts  may  go  on  together,  vocational 
schools  and  departments  for  industrial,  agricultural 
and  domestic  science  education  may  offer  instruction 
in  day,  part-time  and  evening  classes.  Such  instruc- 
tion shall  be  of  less  than  college  grade  and  be  designed 
to  meet  the  vocational  needs  of  persons  over  fourteen 
years  of  age  who  are  able  to  profit  by  the  instruction 
offered.  Attendance  upon  such  day  or  part-time 
classes  shall  be  restricted  to  persons  over  fourteen 
and  under  twenty-five  years  of  age;  and  upon  such 
evening  classes  to  persons  over  seventeen  years  of  age. 


Organization  Contrasted  313 

Studies — How  Outlined 

Sec.  5.  Elementary  agriculture  shall  be  taught  in 
the  grades  in  all  towns  and  township  schools ;  elemen- 
tary industrial  work  shall  be  taught  in  the  grades  in 
all  city  and  town  schools,  and  elementary  domestic 
science  shall  be  taught  in  the  grades  in  all  city,  town 
and  township  schools.  The  State  board  of  education 
shall  outline  a  course  of  study  for  each  of  such  grades 
as  they  may  determine,  which  shall  be  followed  as  a 
minimum  requirement.  The  board  shall  also  outline 
a  course  of  study  in  agriculture,  domestic  science  and 
industrial  work,  which  they  may  require  city,  town 
and  township  high  schools  to  offer  as  regular  courses. 
After  September  1,  191 5,  all  teachers  required  to  teach 
elementary  agriculture,  industrial  work  or  domestic 
science,  shall  have  passed  an  examination  in  such 
subjects  prepared  by  the  State  board  of  education. 

State  Board  of  Education 

Sec.  6.  The  State  board  of  education  is  hereby 
authorized  and  directed  to  investigate  and  to  aid  in 
the  introduction  of  industrial,  agricultural  and  domes- 
tic science  education,  to  aid  cities,  town  and  town- 
ships to  initiate  and  superintend  the  establishment 
and  maintenance  of  schools  and  departments  for  the 
aforesaid  forms  of  education;  and  to  supervise  and 
approve  such  schools,  and  departments,  as  hereinafter 
provided. 

Sec.  7.  The  State  board  of  education  shall  consist 
of  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  the  presi- 
dents of    Purdue  University,   the  State   University 


314  Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

and  the  State  Normal  School,  the  superintendents  of 
schools  of  the  three  cities  having  the  largest  enumera- 
tion of  children  for  school  purposes  annually  reported 
to  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  as 
provided  by  law,  three  citizens  actively  engaged  in 
educational  work  in  the  State,  at  least  one  of  whom 
shall  be  a  county  superintendent  of  schools,  and  three 
persons  actively  interested  in,  and  of  known  sympathy 
with,  vocational  education,  one  of  whom  shall  be  a 
representative  of  employees  and  one  of  employers. 

The  governors  shall  appoint  the  members  of  the 
board,  except  the  ex  officio  members,  for  a  term  of 
four  years. 

Appointments — How  Made 

Sec.  8.  The  State  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction, with  the  advice  and  approval  of  the  State 
board  of  education,  shall  appoint  a  deputy  superin- 
tendent in  charge  of  industrial  and  domestic  science 
education,  who  shall  act  under  the  direction  of  the 
State  superintendent  of  public  instruction  in  carrying 
out  the  provisions  of  this  act.  The  salary  and  term 
of  office  of  such  deputy  shall  be  fixed  by  the  board 
and  he  shall  be  removable  by  the  board  only  for  cause. 

The  State  superintendent,  with  the  approval  of  the 
State  board  of  education,  is  authorized  to  cooperate 
with  Purdue  University  in  the  appointment  of  some 
person  actively  connected  with  the  agricultural  ex- 
tension work  at  Purdue  as  an  agent  in  supervising 
agricultural  education,  who  shall  serve  in  a  dual 
capacity  as  an  agent  of  the  State  and  superintendent 
and  an  assistant  at  Purdue  University.  The  board 
and  the  authorities  of  Purdue  University  may  fix  the 


Organization  Contrasted  315 

proportion  of  the  salary  of  such  agent  to  be  borne  by 
the  State  and  by  the  university.  Such  person  shall 
be  subject  to  removal  for  cause  by  the  State  board  of 
education. 

All  expenses  incurred  in  discharge  of  their  duties 
by  deputies  and  agents  shall  be  paid  by  the  State  from 
funds  provided  for  in  this  act. 

Advisory  Committee 

Sec.  9.  Boards  of  education  or  township  trustees 
administering  approved  vocational  schools  and  de- 
partments for  industrial,  agricultural  or  domestic 
science  education,  shall,  under  a  scheme  to  be  ap- 
proved by  the  State  board  of  education,  appoint  an 
advisory  committee  composed  of  members  represent- 
ing local  trades,  industries  and  occupations.  It  shall 
be  the  duty  of  the  advisory  committee  to  counsel  with 
and  advise  the  board  and  other  school  officials  having 
the  management  and  supervision  of  such  schools  or 
departments. 

Admission  to  Schools — To  Whom  Made 

Sec.  10.  Any  resident  of  any  city,  town  or  town- 
ship in  Indiana,  which  does  not  maintain  an  approved 
vocational  school  or  department  for  industrial,  agri- 
cultural or  domestic  science  education  offering  the 
type  of  training  which  he  desires,  may  make  applica- 
tion for  admission  to  such  school  or  department  main- 
tained by  another  city,  town  or  township  or  any 
school  of  secondary  grade  maintaining  an  approved 
industrial,  agricultural  or  domestic  science  school 
or  department.  The  State  board  of  education,  whose 
decision  shall  be  final,  may  approve  or  disapprove 


316   Schools  of  U.   S.  and  Germany 

such  application.  In  making  such  decision  the  board 
shall  take  into  consideration  the  opportunities  for 
free  vocational  training  in  the  community  in  which  the 
applicant  resides;  the  financial  status  of  the  com- 
munity; the  age,  sex,  preparation,  aptitude  and  pre- 
vious record  of  the  applicant,  and  all  other  relevant 
circumstances. 

The  school,  city  or  town  or  township  in  which  the 
person  resides,  who  has  been  admitted  as  above  pro- 
vided, to  an  approved  vocational  school  or  depart- 
ment for  industrial,  agricultural,  or  domestic  science 
education,  maintained  by  another  city,  town  or  town- 
ship or  other  school,  shall  pay  such  tuition  fee  as  may 
be  fixed  by  the  state  board  of  education ;  and  the  state 
shall  reimburse  such  school,  city  or  town  or  township 
as  provided  for  in  this  act.  If  any  school,  city  or  town 
or  township  neglects  or  refuses  to  pay  for  such  tuition, 
it  shall  be  liable  therefor  in  an  action  of  contract  to 
the  school,  city  or  town  or  township  or  cities  and  towns 
and  townships  or  other  school  maintaining  the  school 
which  the  pupil  with  the  approval  of  said  board 
attended. 

Compulsory  Attendance 

Sec.  ii.  In  case  the  board  of  education  or  town- 
ship trustee  of  any  city,  town  or  township  have  estab- 
lished vocational  schools  for  the  instruction  of  youths 
over  fourteen  years  of  age  who  are  engaged  in  regular 
employment,  in  part-time  classes,  and  have  formally 
accepted  the  provisions  of  this  section,  such  board  of 
trustees  are  authorized  to  require  all  youths  between 
the  ages  of  fourteen  and  sixteen  years  who  are  regu- 
larly employed,  to  attend  school  not  less  than  five 


Organization  Contrasted  317 

hours  per  week  between  the  hours  of  8  a.m.  and  5  p.m. 
during  school  term. 

County  Agent — Petition 

Sec.  12.  Whenever  twenty  or  more  residents  of  a 
county,  who  are  actively  interested  in  agriculture, 
shall  file  a  petition  with  the  county  board  of  education 
for  a  county  agent,  together  with  a  deposit  of  $500 
to  be  used  in  defraying  expenses  of  such  agent,  the 
county  board  of  education  shall  file  said  petition, 
within  thirty  days  of  its  receipt,  with  the  county 
council,  which  body  shall,  upon  receipt  of  such  peti- 
tion, appropriate  annually  the  sum  of  $1,500  to  be 
used  in  paying  the  salary  and  other  expenses  of  said 
county  agent.  When  the  county  appropriation  has 
been  made  the  county  board  of  education  shall  apply 
to  Purdue  University  for  the  appointment  of  a  county 
agent  whose  appointment  shall  be  made  annually 
and  be  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  county  board  of 
education,  and  the  state  board  of  education.  When 
such  appointment  has  been  made,  there  shall  be  paid 
annually  from  the  state  fund  provided  for  in  this  act, 
to  Purdue  University,  to  be  paid  to  the  county  pro- 
viding for  a  county  agent,  an  amount  sufficient  to 
pay  one-half  the  annual  salary  of  the  county  agent 
appointed  as  herein  provided:  Provided,  that  not 
more  than  $1,000  shall  be  appropriated  to  any  one 
county.  Provided,  further,  that  not  more  than 
thirty  (30)  counties  during  the  year  ending  September 
30,  1 914;  and  sixty  (60)  counties  during  the  year 
ending  September  30,  1915,  shall  be  entitled  to  state 
aid.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  such  agent,  under  the 
supervision  of  Purdue  University,  to  cooperate  with 


3i8   Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

farmers'  institutes,  farmers'  clubs  and  other  organi- 
zations, conduct  practical  farm  demonstrations,  boys' 
and  girls'  clubs  and  contest  work  and  other  move- 
ments for  the  advancement  of  agriculture  and  country 
life  and  to  give  advice  to  farmers  on  practical  farm 
problems  and  aid  the  county  superintendent  of  schools 
and  the  teachers  in  giving  practical  education  in  agri- 
culture and  domestic  science.  The  county  board  of 
education  is  hereby  authorized  to  file  monthly  bills 
covering  salary  and  expenses  of  county  agent,  the 
same  to  be  approved  by  Purdue  University,  with 
the  county  auditor  who  shall  draw  his  warrant  or 
warrants  on  the  county  treasurer  for  the  payment  of 
same. 

Cities  and  Towns — Reimbursed 

Sec.  13.  Vocational  schools  or  departments  for 
industrial  agricultural  and  domestic  science  education 
shall,  so  long  as  they  are  approved  by  the  state  board 
of  education  as  to  organization,  location,  equipment, 
courses  of  study,  qualifications  of  teachers,  methods 
of  instruction,  conditions  of  admission,  employment 
of  pupils  and  expenditure  of  money,  constitute  ap- 
proved vocational  schools  or  departments.  Schools, 
cities  and  towns  and  townships  maintaining  such 
approved  vocational  schools  shall  receive  reimburse- 
ment as  provided  in  this  act. 

State  Maintenance 

Sec.  14.  The  State,  in  order  to  aid  in  the  mainte- 
nance of  approved  vocational  schools  or  departments 
for  industrial  agricultural  and  domestic  science  educa- 


Organization  Contrasted  319 

tion,  shall,  as  provided  in  this  act,  pay  annually  to 
schools,  cities  and  towns  and  townships  maintaining 
such  schools  and  departments  an  amount  equal  to 
two-thirds  of  the  sum  expended  for  instruction  in 
vocational  and  technical  subjects  authorized  and 
approved  by  the  state  board  of  education.  Such 
cost  of  instruction  shall  consist  of  the  total  amount 
raised  by  local  taxation  and  expended  for  the  teachers 
of  approved  vocational  and  technical  subjects.  School 
cities  and  towns  and  townships  that  have  paid  claims 
for  tuition  in  approved  vocational  schools  shall  be 
reimbursed  by  the  State  as  provided  in  this  act,  to 
the  extent  of  one-half  the  sums  expended  by  such 
schools,  cities  and  towns  and  townships  in  payment  of 
such  claims. 

The  Wisconsin  attendance  requirements  are: 

As  the  result  of  the  recommendations  of  the  Wis- 
consin Commission  on  Industrial  Education,  1910, 
laws  were  passed  in  191 1  in  which  the  responsibility 
of  the  state  for  the  training  of  all  adolescents  up  to 
the  age  of  sixteen,  whether  they  remain  in  school  or 
go  to  work  is  asserted;  the  state  taking  complete 
control  educationally,  so  to  speak,  of  the  child  from 
his  seventh  to  his  sixteenth  year. 

No  child  under  sixteen  is  permitted  to  work  at  any 
occupation  hazardous  to  body,  health  or  character. 
Every  normal  child  is  required  to  attend  regularly 
the  public  school,  or  other  equivalent  school  from  the 
seventh  to  the  fourteenth  year.  Between  fourteen 
and  sixteen  years  of  age  there  is  an  alternative ;  every 
child  shall  continue  to  attend  the  common  school 
faithfully,  or,  upon  obtaining  a  definite  permit  from 


320   Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

the  Commission  of  Labor,  a  truancy  officer,  or  the 
judge  of  a  state,  county,  or  municipal  court,  the  child 
may  enter  upon  a  definitely  specified  useful  occupation, 
working  thereat  not  more  than  forty-eight  hours  per 
week,  including  five  hours  per  week  to  be  spent  in  the 
industrial  school.  If  he  discontinues  the  permitted 
occupation  at  any  time  he  must  return  at  once  to  the 
public  school  and  the  employer  must  return  the  per- 
mit for  cancellation. 

Every  child  in  Wisconsin  between  fourteen  and 
sixteen  years  of  age  who,  under  a  special  permit  enters 
upon  some  useful  employment,  must  go  to  an  industrial, 
commercial,  continuation  or  evening  school  for  five 
hours  each  week,  the  employer  continuing  the  wages 
during  those  hours,  the  attendance  upon  school  being 
for  such  hours,  and  at  such  places,  as  the  local  board 
of  education  prescribes.1 

1  Mr.  Prosser  has  stated  the  matter  rather  magnanimously. 
It  is  true  that  in  cities  of  5000  population  there  are  to  be  separate 
industrial  boards;  it  is  true  that  these  industrial  boards  are  to 
foster  the  continuation  of  industrial  schools ;  it  is  true  that  if  this 
separate  industrial  board  does  foster  and  establish  industrial 
schools  that  then,  mark  it,  then,  mark  it  well,  permit  pupils  are 
obliged  to  attend  school. 

' '  The  law  also  applies  to  cities  under  5,000  providing,  of  course, 
the  regular  board  of  education  is  willing  to  appoint  an  industrial 
board.  But  even  in  cities  over  5,000,  the  regular  board  of  edu- 
cation may  fail  to  appoint  an  industrial  board  and  there  is  no 
penalty,  and  they  may  appoint  an  industrial  board  with  an  under- 
standing with  said  industrial  board  that  it  shall  be  inactive, — 
do  nothing,  and  thus  block  the  establishing  of  industrial  or 
continuation  schools,  said  board  sitting  back  and  saying,  'We 
will  do  so  when  we  are  coerced  upon  petition  of  twenty-five 
people.' 

"However,  the  law  also  provides  that  not  more  than  forty- 
five  schools  may  be  established.     On  the  optimistic  side,  it  ought 


Organization  Contrasted  321 

Wisconsin  is  apparently  determined  to  do  away  with 
illiteracy,  by  requiring  that  no  person  shall  employ 
a  minor  over  fourteen  years  of  age  in  a  community 
where  there  is  an  industrial  school  for  the  industry  in 
which  the  minor  works  without  first  securing  a  written 
permit  from  the  commissioner  of  labor,  state  factory 
inspector,  or  any  assistant  factory  inspector,  or  from 
the  judge  of  a  juvenile  court  where  such  child  resides, 
and  certifying  either  to  his  ability  to  read  at  sight,  and 
write  legibly  simple  sentences  in  the  English  language, 
or  that  he  is  a  regular  attendant  at  the  public  evening 
school  or  continuation  school.  This  provision  oper- 
ates only  against  illiteracy,  as  attendance  upon  in- 
dustrial schools  in  other  cases  is  not  compulsory  after 
the  age  of  sixteen. 

Wisconsin  has  likewise  rewritten  her  apprentice- 
ship laws.  The  former  law  was  written  in  1849  and 
under  present  industrial  conditions  was  obsolete.  It 
becomes  a  punishable  offense  to  form  "any  contractual 
relation  in  the  nature  of  an  apprenticeship"  without 
complying  with  this  new  law.  The  law  requires  that 
all  apprenticeship  agreements  shall  be  signed  by  the 
legal  representative  of  the  minor  and  by  the  employer. 


to  be  said  that  at  this  time  there  is  a  greater  demand  for  schools 
than  the  law  permits.  There  is  a  demand  for  fifty  schools  at  this 
time  with  authority  to  establish  only  forty-five.  The  original 
law  provides  for  only  thirty  schools  in  191 1,  but  in  19 13  this 
number  was  increased  to  forty-five.  Now  in  August,  19 14,  we 
have  established  fifty  schools.  Five  of  them  we  cannot  aid, 
because  of  the  provision  of  the  law.  We  have  plenty  of  money 
to  aid  and  money  appropriated,  but  we  lack  the  specific  provision 
to  establish  more  than  forty -five  schools." — Special  communica- 
tion from  Warren  E.  Hicks,  Assistant  for  Industrial  Education, 
State  of  Wisconsin, 

21 


322   Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

The  agreement  shall  state  the  number  of  hours  to  be 
spent  in  work  and  the  number  of  hours  to  be  spent  in 
instruction;  the  total  of  such  hours  shall  not  exceed 
fifty-five  in  any  one  week.  , 

The  agreement  must  provide  that  the  whole  trade, 
as  carried  on  by  the  employer,  shall  be  taught,  and 
shall  state  the  amount  of  time  to  be  spent  at  each 
process  machine;  also  that  not  less  than  five  hours 
per  week  of  the  before  mentioned  fifty-five  hours  per 
week  shall  be  devoted  to  instruction,  including  in- 
struction in  English,  in  citizenship,  business  practice, 
physiology,  and  such  other  branches  as  may  be  ap- 
proved by  the  State  Board  of  Industrial  Education. 
It  shall  name  the  amount  of  compensation  to  be  paid 
the  apprentice. 

The  instruction  may  be  given  in  a  public  school, 
or  in  such  other  manner  as  may  be  approved  by  the 
State  Board  of  Industrial  Education.  Failure  to 
attend  school  subjects  the  apprentice  to  a  loss  of 
compensation  "for  three  hours  for  every  hour  such 
apprentice  shall  be  absent  without  good  cause."  It 
is  not  required  that  the  apprentice  attend  school 
during  such  parts  of  the  year  as  the  public  school  is 
not  in  session.1 

The  contrast  mentioned  above  is  exemplified  by 
what  is  known  as  the  system  of  "dual  control." 
A  second  board, — composed  of  three  employers, 
three  skilled  employees  (these  six  to  be  appointed 
by  the  Governor),  the  State  Superintendent  of 
Education,  the  Dean  of  the  Extension  Depart- 
ment, and  the  Dean  of  the  College  of  Engineering 

1  C.  A.  Prosser,  American  Political  Science  Review,  1912,  p.  593> 


Organization  Contrasted  323 

of  the  University  of  Wisconsin, — has  in  its  hands 
practically  all  vocational  training.  This  board 
has  no  responsibility  for  the  general  education  of 
the  State. 

Local  boards,  entirely  independent  of  the  regular 
school  committee,  are  provided  for.  To  them  are 
assigned  the  duty  and  the  power  to  carry  on 
industrial  continuation,  commercial,  and  evening 
schools. 

The  State  grants  aid  to  the  amount  of  one-half 
of  the  sum  expended  in  any  school  up  to  $3000, 
and  not  exceeding  $10,000  for  any  one  community. 

In  addition  to  the  above  laws,  the  chief  provi- 
sions of  the  old  law  of  1907,  which  permitted  trade 
schools  to  be  established  as  a  part  of  the  regular 
public  school  system  of  a  city,  still  remain  in 
force.  A  city  may  establish  a  school  to  give 
instruction  in  the  useful  trades  to  persons  more 
than  fourteen  years  of  age. 

3.  In  Germany.  In  some  quarters  of  our 
country  a  lively  discussion  has  arisen  as  to  how 
these  German  schools  are  controlled. 

American  investigators,  who  have  gone  to  Ger- 
many, do  not  seem  to  be  fully  agreed  as  to  what 
the  German  experience  would  teach  us  in  the  way 
of  controlling  our  own  industrial  and  commercial 
schools. 

Readers,  no  doubt,  are  quite  familiar  with  the 
so-called  dual,  and  unit-control  systems. 

The  proposition  of  those  who  favor  the  dual 


324   Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

control  has  been  quite  clearly  stated  by  Dr.  Edwin 
G.  Cooley,  who  says  that  these  "  schools  should 
be  separate,  independent,  compulsory  day  schools, 
supported  by  special  taxes,  carried  on  usually  in 
special  buildings,  administered  by  special  boards 
of  practical  men  and  women."  In  addition  to  this, 
Dr.  Cooley  agrees  with  Mr.  Charles  C.  McCarthy 
who  drafted  the  report  of  the  Wisconsin  Commis- 
sion, when  he  says:  "the  Germans  have  estab- 
lished, almost  universally,  local  committees  of 
business  men,  manufacturers,  and  workmen,  who 
control  these  schools  wherever  they  are."1 

This  statement  is  highly  misleading,  and  one 
that  scarcely  in  any  degree  whatever  represents 
the  real  German  experience. 

In  Germany  there  is  very  little  local  control  of 
schools,  or  anything  else.  The  authority  in  all 
lines  is  highly  centralized. 

The  organization  of  the  Empire  and  of  the 
individual  German  States  supports  my  contention. 

The  German  Empire  is  composed  of  twenty-six 
States.  Kaiser  Wilhelm  II.,  as  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many, has  little  power,  but,  as  King  of  Prussia, 
he  is  in  a  position  to  rule  all  Germany. 

It  is  true  that  the  German  Reichstag  of  397 
members  is  elected  by  the  people.  Even  that  is 
not  wholly  democratic,  because  the  number  of 
representatives  to  each  election  district  has  become 
grossly  unequal  in  proportion  to  the  inhabitants 
of  the  districts.     By  reason  of  the  tendency  of 

1  The  Elementary  School  Teacher,  June,  1913. 


Organization  Contrasted  325 

the  city  constituencies  to  return  to  the  Reichstag 
Socialists  or  other  radicals,  the  Government  has 
never  been  willing  to  allow  a  redistribution  of 
seats.  The  legislative  functions  of  the  Reichstag 
are,  in  practice,  distinctly  subordinate  to  those  of 
the  Bundesrath,  which  is  composed  of  fifty-eight 
delegates  appointed  by  the  princes  of  the  monarchi- 
cal States  and  the  senates  of  the  free  cities. 

The  King  of  Prussia  appoints  seventeen  for 
Prussia,  two  for  Brunswick,  and  one  for  Waldeck. 
This  gives  him  an  absolute  control  of  twenty 
votes  in  the  Bundesrath. 

Any  proposal  to  amend  the  Constitution  may 
be  checked  by  as  few  as  fourteen  votes  in  the 
Bundesrath,  whence  it  arises  that  Prussia  has 
an  absolute  veto  on  amendments.  No  change 
may  be  made  relating  to  the  military  affairs,  the 
navy,  the  tariff,  and  various  consumptive  taxes 
without  the  consent  of  Prussia. 

Prussia  has  the  chairmanship  of  all  standing 
committees  in  the  Bundesrath.  The  King  of 
Prussia  is  in  supreme  command  of  the  army  and 
navy. 

Besides,  Prussia  enjoys  an  immense  moral 
force  due  to  the  lead  in  organizing  Germany,  and 
also  to  its  preponderance  of  population  over  the 
remaining  German  States. 

The  same  centralization  of  authority  which  we 
see  in  the  organization  of  the  Empire,  is  also 
characteristic  of  each  individual  State.  Each 
German   State  has  a  two-chambered  legislative 


326   Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

body.  The  Upper  Chamber  is  filled  by  direct 
appointments  of  the  crown,  or  by  heredity. 
This  Upper  Chamber  is  always  in  a  position  to 
block  legislation  which  may  be  proposed  by  the 
Lower  House,  which  is  elected  by  the  people. 
The  system  of  government  in  the  Kingdom  of 
Prussia  is  typical  of  that  in  all  the  States.  The 
Herrenhaus  in  Prussia  is  composed  of  about  400 
members,  the  majority  of  whom  are  appointed  by 
the  King.  Since  the  Lower  House  cannot  pass 
any  laws  without  the  agreement  of  the  Upper 
House,  the  King  of  Prussia  through  his  represent- 
atives controls  absolutely  all  legislation.  Now 
even  the  Lower  House  is  not  a  democratic  body. 
In  Prussia  the  voters  are  divided  into  three  classes 
according  to  their  wealth.  Enough  voters  are 
put  into  the  first  class  to  make  the  sum  of  the 
taxes  paid  equal  to  one-third  of  the  whole  tax 
raised.  An  additional  number  are  taken  to  con- 
stitute a  second  third  of  all  the  taxes  paid.  The 
remaining  voters  form  the  third  class.  In  2214 
districts  in  Prussia  one  man  owns  enough  property 
to  enable  him  to  appoint  all  the  electors  of  the 
first  class.  In  1703  districts  in  Prussia  two  men 
own  enough  property  to  enable  them  to  appoint 
all  the  electors  of  the  second  class.  To  sum  up 
the  whole  situation,  we  may  say  that  three  per 
cent,  of  the  voters  in  Prussia  appoint  one- third 
of  the  electors  and  that  the  second  third  of  the 
electors  are  appointed  by  nine  per  cent,  of  the 
voters;  the  remaining  eighty-eight  per  cent,   of 


Organization  Contrasted  327 

the  voters  appoint  the  completing  third  of  the 
electors. 

At  the  Prussian  elections  of  1908,  a  Social 
Democratic  vote  which  comprised  approximately 
twenty-four  per  cent,  of  the  total  vote,  yielded 
but  seven  members  in  a  total  of  443. 

These  facts  prove  conclusively  that  local  con- 
trol is  wholly  out  of  harmony  with  the  organiza- 
tion of  both  the  Empire  and  the  individual  States. 
The  friends  of  the  dual- control  system  are  attempt- 
ing to  find  in  Germany  a  democracy  which  we 
see  must  be  entirely  foreign  to  the  whole  spirit 
of  the  German  Government. 

The  spirit  in  which  the  German  laws  are  admin- 
istered is  even  more  autocratic  than  the  letter 
of  the  law  would  indicate.  The  crown  appoints 
the  Ministers.  These  Ministers  are  not  subject 
to  any  legislative  body.  They  are  answerable 
to  no  one  except  the  King.  If  the  legislative 
bodies  give  an  adverse  vote  to  the  policy  of  a 
Minister,  it  is  not  incumbent  upon  him  to  resign, 
as  is  usual  in  other  States  of  Europe. 

The  two  elements  which  count  for  most  in 
German  administration  are  wealth  and  birth. 
A  people  which  tolerates  such  government  organi- 
zation is  not  likely  to  enjoy  local  control  in  school 
matters.  My  contention  will  be  demonstrated 
still  more  fully  and  effectively  by  an  examination 
of  the  school  laws. 

Laws  of  the  Empire.  As  has  been  indicated  on 
page  70,  the  direction  and  government  of  indus- 


328    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

trial  education  in  Germany  does  not  come  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Empire,  but  is  left  to  the 
several  States.  Nevertheless,  indirectly,  Imperial 
legislation  has  had  a  great  influence  in  forwarding 
industrial  and  commercial  education. 

The  main  point  of  this  Imperial  legislation  lies 
in  Section  120  of  the  Reichsgewerbcordnung,  which 
provides  that  the  school  districts,  or  communes, 
may  compel  boys  and  girls  under  the  age  of  eighteen 
years  to  attend  an  industrial  or  commercial  school. 
The  same  provision  may  be  made  to  apply  to  girls 
of  the  same  age,  if  they  are  engaged  in  commercial 
or  clerical  work.  Parents  who  refuse  to  send 
their  children  to  the  schools  are  subject  to  a  fine. 
Attendance  upon  a  guild  or  other  continuation 
school  will  not  exempt  the  pupil  from  attending 
the  school  established  under  this  law,  unless  the 
instruction  given  has  been  established  as  at  least 
equal  in  grade  and  amount  to  that  offered  in  the 
regular  school.  Employers  are  obliged  to  give 
workers  under  eighteen  years  of  age  the  necessary 
time  to  attend  such  schools. 

Most  States  have  additional  legislation,  which 
is  much  more  comprehensive  and  mandatory  than 
the  above-mentioned  Reichsgewerbeordnung. 

The  question,  "What  authority  shall  control 
these  schools?"  has  been  variously  answered. 
The  table  on  next  page  shows  the  departments 
that  now  control  the  States  named. 

From  the  table  which  we  here  present,  we  see 
that  Prussia  and  Hessen  have  a  dual  school  organ- 


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330   Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

ization.  Bavaria  and  Wurttemberg  have  put  the 
trade  schools  in  charge  of  the  State  Department 
of  Education,  which  also  controls  the  public 
schools. 

In  Saxony,  the  obligatory  continuation  schools 
are  under  the  Ministry  of  Churches  and  Schools, 
whereas  the  voluntary  commercial  and  trade 
schools  are  under  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior. 

In  Baden,  the  industrial  continuation  schools 
were  put  under  the  Minister  of  the  Interior  in 
1905.  Only  one  type  of  schools  was  affected  by 
the  change.  The  control  of  the  commercial  con- 
tinuation schools,  of  the  continuation  schools  for 
agriculture,  and  of  the  schools  for  domestic  science 
was  not  changed. 

In  Prussia,  we  find  a  unique  situation  which 
must  be  changed  before  decided  advancement  can 
be  made  in  the  further  development  of  the  trade 
school.  The  Ministry  for  Schools  and  Churches, 
which  controls  the  public  schools,  is  always  headed 
by  a  theologian,  that  is,  by  a  man  who  has  gone 
through  a  seminary,  and  has  had  long  experience 
as  pastor  and  officer  in  Church  circles.  For  this 
reason  the  public  school  system  is  very  conser- 
vative in  all  that  it  teaches.  Religion  as  a  subject 
in  the  curriculum  is  strictly  insisted  upon  for  one 
hour  per  day  throughout  the  school  course. 

In  1884,  the  industrial  schools  of  Prussia  were 
transferred  from  the  Ministry  of  Schools  and 
Churches  to  the  Ministry  of  Commerce  and  In- 
dustry.    This  move  represented  one  of  Bismarck's 


Organization  Contrasted  331 


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successful  efforts  to  get  something  completely 
out  of  the  hands  of  the  clergy,  with  whom  he 
usually  quarreled.  Industrial  education  has  made 
some  great  strides  since  the  establishment  of  the 
dual  organization,  but  only  in  so  far  as  it  has  been 
possible  to  develop  under  the  legislation  which 
was  in  force  at  the  time  of  the  separation.  The 
dropping  of  religion  from  the  curriculum,  and 
the  emphasizing  of  the  practical  rather  than  the 
bookish  students  offended  the  clerical  party. 
This,  in  turn,  has  resulted  in  a  constant  warfare 
between  the  two  factions  ever  since.  Up  to  the 
present  time  Prussia  has  not  been  able  to  get  legis- 
lation making  industrial  education  compulsory 
except  for  the  provinces  of  West  Prussia  and 
Posen.  The  two  parties  cannot  agree  on  the 
question  of  religion.  Both  parties  want  to  make 
attendance  compulsory  from  the  ages  of  fourteen 
to  seventeen.  The  clerical  party  wants  a  guar- 
anty that  one  hour  per  week  shall  be  given  over 
to  their  hands  for  religious  instruction.  The 
other  party  claims  that  religious  teaching  has 
no  place  in  a  trade  school.  As  it  is  now,  only  the 
districts  or  communes  can  make  attendance 
compulsory. 

As  shown  in  the  table  the  Prussian  schools  are 
under  the  Landesgewerbeamt,  which  is  composed 
of  five  members  appointed  by  the  Minister.  In 
addition  to  these  there  are  twelve  extraordinary 
members. 

In  addition  to  this  there  is  an  advisory  board 


332   Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

composed  of  seventy  members,  selected  from  mem- 
bers of  the  Prussian  legislature,  mayors  of  cities, 
representatives  of  industry  and  commerce,  trade 
school  directors,  representatives  of  leading  educa- 
tional and  technical  organizations,  and  several 
other  societies. 

This  larger  body  meets  once  in  two  years  for  a 
period  of  several  days  to  discuss  all  kinds  of  ques- 
tions connected  with  the  schools.  The  questions 
for  discussion  are  submitted  by  the  Minister  of 
Commerce  and  Industry.  After  he  gets  their 
advice,  he  does  as  he  pleases. 

The  control  of  the  schools  is  placed  under  the 
regular  board  of  five  members  who  receive  their 
appointment  from  the  Minister  of  Commerce 
and  Industry.  The  duties  of  this  board  are  as 
follows:  to  arrange  the  curriculum,  the  examina- 
tions, to  prescribe  the  methods  of  instruction,  to 
provide  the  material  necessary  for  instruction, 
to  appoint  the  directors  and  teachers,  to  prepare 
plans  for  the  further  training  of  the  teachers,  to 
supervise  the  construction  of  new  buildings,  and 
to  recommend  the  budget. 

This  board  is  to  keep  itself  posted  as  to  the 
capability  of  the  directors  and  teachers  and  to 
report  on  the  efficiency  of  the  school  in  every 
detail. 

There  is,  then,  no  local  control  whatever.  This 
applies  to  more  than  three-fourths  of  all  the  com- 
mercial and  industrial  continuation  schools  in 
Prussia. 


Organization  Contrasted  333 

Let  it  be  remembered  that  the  friends  of  the 
" dual-control"  system  cite  Prussia  as  their  best 
example. 

Next  let  us  consider  the  remaining  one-fourth 
of  the  industrial  and  commercial  continuation 
schools  of  Prussia. 

There  are  certain  types  of  industrial  schools 
established  by  guilds  and  chambers  of  commerce 
that  are  controlled  by  local  boards.  One  of  the 
finest  of  this  type  is  the  commercial  school  in 
Berlin.  It  receives  no  state  or  municipal  aid. 
All  expenses  are  paid  to  the  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce. There  are  several  types  of  industrial 
schools  in  Berlin,  the  expenses  of  which  are  paid 
entirely  by  the  guilds.  Schools  of  this  type 
would,  of  course,  be  no  argument  for  a  two-board 
school  system  in  the  United  States,  where  the 
State  and  municipality  bear  the  expenses. 

Even  these  schools  are  not  wholly  free  from 
state  influence,  because  the  State  allows  them  to 
exist  only  because  they  are  at  least  equal  and  most 
generally  more  advanced  than  the  ones  required 
by  the  state  law. 

The  remaining  fraction  of  the  one-fourth  is 
made  up  of  guild  schools,  that  do  receive  some 
state  aid.  In  such  cases  the  State  assumes  con- 
trol, although  the  local  board  continues  as  a  sort 
of  advisory  and  honorary  body. 

In  the  light  of  these  facts,  how  is  Dr.  Cooley 
warranted  in  saying  that  "everywhere,  but  in 
Bavaria,  these  schools  are  directed  by  a  board  or 


336   Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

from  the  Ministry  of  Education  so  that  they 
might  be  governed  by  the  same  board  which  gov- 
erns the  higher  technical  schools.  It  was  not  done 
in  order  that  these  schools  might  be  governed  by 
a  "board  of  'so-called'  practical  men."  These 
schools  are  governed,  in  the  main,  by  a  board 
called  the  Landesgewerbeamt.  This  is  not  a  local 
board.  Each  school  has  a  local  board  whose 
functions  are  largely  advisory.  Director  Sierck, 
editor  of  the  school,  Zeitschrift  fur  das  gesamte 
Fortbildungsschulwesen  in  Preussen,  says:  "Its 
functions  are  considerably  limited  by  detailed 
regulations  and  by  far-reaching  supervisory  powers 
of  higher  authorities."1 

The  control  of  the  commercial  continuation 
schools,  the  continuation  schools  for  agriculture, 
and  schools  for  domestic  science  still  remain  under 
the  Department  of  Education. 

Saxony 

Whereas  no  great  change  has  been  made  in 
control  of  the  industrial  schools  in  the  last  decade, 
it  will  be  interesting  to  note  a  tendency  to  do 
away  with  the  dual  system  in  Saxony.  The 
journal  Die  Fortbildungsschule  (Leipzig,  April, 
191 1),  contains  an  article  on  "Der  Dualismus 
im  gewerblichen    Unterrichtswesen."     There    the 

1  "  Seine  Bef  ugnisse  sind  durch  die  bestehenden  detaillierten 
Vorschriften  und  durch  das  weitgehende  Aufsichtsrecht  der  vor- 
geordneten  Behorden  ziemlich  beschrankt." 


Organization  Contrasted  337 

Sachische  Foribildungsschulverein  and  the  Sachische 
Lehrerverein  have  both  come  out  for  the  union  of 
the  two  types  of  control.  After  giving  the  usual 
arguments  for  union,  the  paragraph  closes  by- 
stating:  "The  unification  of  the  two  types  of 
schools  will  prove  a  blessing  for  all  concerned."1 
Then  the  article  continues  to  give  examples  where 
the  union  has  recently  been  carried  through  in 
such  cities  as  Chemnitz,  Plauen,  Annaberg,  and 
Zittau.  The  article  closes  by  stating:  "Therefore, 
the  way  to  remove  the  dual  control  has  been 
pointed  out  and  entered  upon."2 

Some  months  ago  Hugo  Steinert,  editor  of  Die 
Foribildungsschule,  wrote  a  letter  to  the  author, 
in  which  he  stated:  "There  reigns  an  unfortunate 
dualism  in  Saxony."  In  some  cases,  I  am  in- 
formed, there  has  resulted  a  duplication  of  courses 
because  of  the  rivalry  and  jealousy  that  has  arisen 
between  the  two  types. 

WtJRTTEMBERG 

In  Wurttemberg,  the  Ministry  of  Schools  and 
Churches  has  control  of  all  the  schools.  The  next 
highest  authority  which  controls  the  commercial 
and  industrial  schools  is  a  board  called  the  Gewer- 
beoberschulrat.     This    board    is    composed    of    a 

1  "Eine  Verschmelzung  beider  Schularten  kann  alien  Beteilig- 
ten  nur  zum  Segen  gereichen." 

2  "Also  der  Weg  zur  Beseitigung  des  Dualismus  ist  gezeigt 
und  beschritten." 

as 


338   Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

member  of  the  Department  of  Commerce  and 
Industry  and  other  members  appointed  by  the 
King.  The  law  required  this  board  to  look  after 
the  higher  supervision,  as  may  be  directed  by 
the  Ministry  of  Schools  and  Churches.  The  next 
in  authority  is  the  Beirat,  which  is  composed  of 
eighteen  members  appointed  by  the  Ministry  of 
Schools  and  Churches.  This  board  is  composed 
of  certain  officials  of  the  district,  directors  and 
officers  of  higher  trade  schools,  higher  commercial 
schools,  public  schools,  art  schools,  and  repre- 
sentatives of  various  trades.  Below  this,  each 
school  has  an  advisory  board. 

Bavaria 

The  law  of  1913  provides  for  two  types  of  con- 
tinuation schools,  one  for  the  country,  the  other 
for  the  city. 

The  country  type  is  organized  in  connection 
with  the  elementary  schools,  and  is  controlled 
by  the  same  authorities. 

The  city  type  has  two  divisions, — the  district 
continuation  school  and  the  trade  school.  The 
former  is  placed  under  the  supervision  of  a  district 
school  board,  composed  of  a  member  of  the  city 
council,  three  citizens  of  the  district,  and  the  head 
master  of  the  school.  It  is  the  business  of  this 
board  to  keep  watch  on  the  regularity  of  attend- 
ance, and  to  seek  to  establish  cordial  relations 
between  the  school  and  the  employers  of  labor. 


Organization  Contrasted  339 

The  latter  is  placed  in  charge  of  a  director.  "  To 
most  trade  schools  is  attached  an  association  of 
employers,  who  bear  the  expense  of  school  mate- 
rial, take  part  in  the  discussions  on  the  plan  of 
instruction,  have  the  right  of  proposing  technical 
teachers,  assist  in  the  supervision  of  the  practical 
subjects,  cooperate  in  the  examination  of  appren- 
tices, and  help  to  spread  interest  in  the  school 
and  to  further  its  prosperous  development.  This 
intimate  connection  of  an  employers'  association 
with  the  aims  and  tasks  of  a  trade  continuation 
school  established  by  public  money  has  in  many 
cases  proved  an  exceedingly  useful  arrangement., 
The  interest  of  the  employers  in  the  education  of  I 
the  apprentices  is  considerably  increased.  And 
when  this  is  achieved,  the  association  naturally 
does  not  content  itself  with  furthering  the  educa- 
tion of  the  apprentices  in  the  school  alone,  but 
seeks  to  raise  the  standard  of  their  calling  in  their 
own  workshops  as  well.  This  is  of  course  a  pro- 
cess that  takes  place  very  gradually."1  Both  the 
district  continuation  school  board  and  the  trade 
school  director  are  under  the  control  of  a  continu- 
ation school  commission. 

In  Munich,  this  commission  is  composed  of  the 
following  members:  the  mayor,  the  city  school 
councillor,  the  city  trade  school  inspector,  two 
magistrates,  three  citizens,  two  trade  school  di- 
rectors, a  director  of  a  commercial  continuation 

1  Lectures  on  Vocational  Training,  by  Dr.  Georg  Kerschen- 
steiner.     Published  by  the  Commercial  Club  of  Chicago,  191 1. 


34°   Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

school,  the  head  master  of  a  trade  school,  the  head 
master  of  a  district  continuation  school,  a  Catholic 
school  inspector,  a  Protestant  school  inspector, 
a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  and  two 
members  of  the  Chamber  of  Trades.  This  com- 
mission prepares  an  annual  report  and  recommends 
the  budget,  the  appointment  of  teachers,  and  the 
courses  of  study.  All  its  proceedings  must  con- 
form to  the  general  regulations  laid  down  by  the 
Minister  of  Schools  and  Churches. 

Changes  in  the  school  organization,  especially 
those  affecting  the  curriculum,  the  appointment 
of  new  directors  and  teachers,  require  the  sanction 
of  the  Department  of  the  Interior,  which  is  a 
branch  of  the  Department  of  the  Ministry  of 
Schools  and  Churches. 

Mistakes  of  the  "Dual-Control"  Advocates 

The  dual- control  advocates  in  this  country 
have  failed  to  take  cognizance  of  the  fact  that  the 
industrial  and  commercial  schools  of  Prussia  were 
taken  from  the  Ministry  of  Education  and  put 
under  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior,  because  of 
the  intense  religious  controversy  which  exists  in 
Germany.  Since  that  controversy  is  absent  here 
the  same  justification  for  separation  does  not 
exist.  The  dual- control  advocates  have  made  a 
still  greater  mistake  in  substituting  local  control 
here  in  the  United  States,  for  state  control  which 
we  find  in  Prussia. 


Organization  Contrasted  341 

One  of  the  four  types  of  vocational  schools  of 
Baden  was  taken  from  the  Ministry  of  Education 
and  put  under  the  Ministry  of  Interior  in  order 
that  it  might  be  controlled  by  the  same  authority 
which  controls  the  higher  technical  schools.  There 
is  no  warrant  for  dual  local  control  in  this  action. 

The  power  of  the  local  boards  of  the  Southern 
German  States  has  been  greatly  exaggerated. 
"Our  friends"  have  substituted  "independent 
schools,  supported  by  special  taxes,  carried  on 
usually  in  special  buildings,  administered  by  special 
boards  of  practical  men  and  women"  for  the 
boards  of  advisory  power  which  we  find  in  Wiirt- 
temberg  and  Bavaria. 

"The  Practical  Boards" 

One  of  the  favorite  arguments  presented  by  those 
who  favor  a  two-board  system  of  control  is  based 
on  the  accusation  that  the  average  schoolman  is 
somewhat  conservative  and  is  not  fully  alive  to 
the  present-day  needs  of  the  community.  This 
is  supposed  to  be  a  valid  argument  for  the  inaugu- 
ration of  a  second  board,  independent  of  the  school 
boards  that  we  have  now.  Dr.  Cooley  says  he 
found  that  this  same  attitude  of  disparagement 
obtained  in  Germany.  He  states  that  "the  guilds 
and  the  practical  men  in  Prussia"  are  dissatisfied 
with  the  conduct  of  the  industrial  schools,  and 
for  that  reason  the  schools  were  taken  from  the 
Ministry  of  Schools  and  Churches  and  put  under 


342    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

the  Ministry  of  Commerce  and  Industry.  He 
states  further  that  "great  care  is  taken  to  keep 
the  schoolmaster  from  exercising  an  undue  influ- 
ence in  the  make-up  of  the  commissions  and 
boards  which  control  the  industrial  schools. " 
Now  I  am  willing  to  admit  that  there  is  still  a 
notion  prevalent,  in  many  quarters  of  the  United 
States,  which  attempts  to  deride  the  American 
school  teacher,  but  I  deny  that  any  such  opinion 
worthy  of  any  consideration  exists  in  Germany. 
Some  of  these  people  who  are  anxious  to  get  dual 
control  for  our  schools  have  tried  to  extend  and 
strengthen  this  feeling  of  disparagement  of  our 
American  school  teachers  by  claiming  to  have 
found  that  the  same  disparagement  of  the  school 
exists  in  Germany.  In  other  words,  they  try 
to  make  a  generalization  to  the  effect  that  the 
schoolman,  wherever  you  find  him,  is  not  practical, 
but  somewhat  visionary,  not  to  be  taken  seriously, 
and  that  this  is  true  no  matter  whether  the  school- 
man be  from  the  United  States,  Germany,  or  else- 
where. Hence,  the  conclusion  is  clear  that,  in 
order  to  have  these  industrial  schools  under  ex- 
cellent management,  it  is  necessary  to  divorce 
them  as  far  as  possible  from  the  influences  that 
are  now  controlling  our  public  schools.  I  main- 
tain that  that  is  just  an  American  idea  that  some 
of  our  good  friends  are  trying  to  foist  upon  Ger- 
many to  strengthen  the  argument  in  its  application 
to  this  country. 

On  the  contrary,  the  German  schoolman  is  the 


Organization  Contrasted  343 

most  influential  person  in  his  community.  He  is 
recognized  everywhere  as  a  thorough  scholar. 
He  has  had,  after  leaving  the  public  schools,  six 
years'  training  in  a  state  normal  school,  and  be- 
sides that  he  has  had  a  year  of  practice  teaching. 
His  standard  of  scholarship  is  more  than  an  equi- 
valent of  sophomore  rank  in  our  best  American 
colleges.  The  German  teacher,  on  the  average, 
has  had  four  or  five  years  more  training  than  the 
American  teacher.  The  expenses  of  his  education 
for  the  most  part,  have  been  paid  by  the  State. 
Even  before  he  was  admitted  to  the  seminar  he 
had  to  be  recommended  by  the  teacher  as  being 
one  of  the  best  pupils  in  the  school.  He  had  to 
pass  a  physical  examination,  which  is  exceptionally 
severe.  In  other  words,  even  at  the  age  of  four- 
teen, he  had  to  give  evidence  of  being  very  excep- 
tional both  in  physique  and  scholarship.  This 
examination  in  itself,  would  go  far  to  indicate  that 
the  German  school  teacher  had  been  selected  with 
reference  to  traits  that  would  insure  the  securing 
of  respect  of  the  community  where  he  might  be 
engaged.  In  addition  to  this,  the  German  school 
teacher  serves  two  years  in  the  army.  During 
this  period  of  service  he  receives  extraordinary 
recognition  from  the  army  officers.  Since  a  large 
proportion  of  the  male  population  of  Germany 
serves  in  the  army,  the  habit  of  showing  some  extra 
deference  to  the  school  teacher  is  acquired  under 
the  influence  of  the  recognition  accorded  school 
teachers  by  the  officers  of  the  army. 


344   Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

Another  reason  why  the  school  teacher  is  a 
man  of  great  prominence  in  the  community  is 
because  he  holds  his  position  for  life.  There  is 
no  local  board  to  put  him  out  of  office.  He  re- 
ceives a  pension  from  the  State  after  his  days  of 
service  are  over.  His  wife  and  children  are  pen- 
sioned by  the  State.  The  fact  of  his  economic 
independence  is,  then,  one  of  the  reasons  that 
makes  him  a  respected  man  in  every  community. 
In  addition  to  this  the  school  teacher  in  the  coun- 
try districts  is  usually  the  secretary  and  treasurer 
of  the  land-banks,  and  when  people  want  to  borrow 
money,  they  go  to  the  school  teacher.  Now,  on 
the  basis  of  what  the  reader  knows  of  things  in 
this  country,  he  will  realize  that  the  man  who  has 
the  power  to  loan  money  is  not  considered  a  second- 
rate  character  in  the  community.  Furthermore, 
it  frequently  happens  when  some  dispute  arises 
in  the  community  that  the  contending  parties, 
instead  of  going  to  trial,  argue  their  case  before 
the  schoolmaster;  and  although  he  has  no  legal 
authority,  yet  his  judgment  in  the  matter  is 
accepted.  In  the  light  of  all  these  facts,  it  must 
be  evident  that  the  advocates  of  the  dual- control 
board  in  this  country,  have  "missed  their  guess" 
entirely  when  they  thought  to  substantiate  a 
two-board  school  system  because  the  German 
school  teacher  was  not  regarded  as  an  individual 
of  influence  in  his  community. 

Suppose,  for  the  sake  of  argument,  we  grant 
that    the   American    schoolman    is   conservative, 


Organization  Contrasted  345 


and  not  prepared  to  carry  out  the  new  industrial 
school  program,  and  that  the  lives  of  our  boys  and 
girls  are  more  or  less  wasted  by  being  under  a 
corps  of  teachers  who  are  not  fully  efficient,  it 
still  does  not  prove  that  a  two-board  school  system 
will  remedy  our  difficulties. 

If  you  will  read  the  Prussian  reports  of  the 
Prussian  Minister  of  Trade  and  Commerce  for 
the  last  twenty-five  years,  you  will  be  surprised 
by  the  number  of  times  that  he  refers  to  the  fact 
that  experience  has  taught  that  the  efficiency  of 
the  industrial  schools  depends  upon  the  work  and 
discipline  in  the  elementary  schools.  He  calls 
attention  to  many  changes  that  had  to  be  made 
in  the  elementary  school,  before  the  time  and 
money  spent  on  the  industrial  schools  really 
became  effective. 

Also  Dr.  Kerschensteiner,  of  Munich,  frequently 
mentions  in  his  reports  that  in  the  different  stages 
of  developing  the  industrial  schools,  it  was  found 
necessary  to  improve  the  elementary  schools. 
Is  it  not  clear  that  he  would  have  been  greatly 
handicapped  if  he  had  not  had  the  elementary 
schools  under  his  charge? 

In  the  summer  of  1909,  I  took  a  course  in  Berlin 
under  Dr.  Kuehne  of  the  LandesgewerbeamL  In 
his  lectures,  he  called  attention  to  the  fact  many 
times  that  advancement  and  further  efficiency 
in  the  industrial  schools  would  depend  largely 
upon  the  cooperation  of  the  elementary  schools. 
In  fact,  German  opinion  is  pretty  well  divided  on 


346   Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

the  question  as  to  whether  the  elementary  or  the 
industrial  schools  have  had  the  most  to  do  with 
the  present  industrial  efficiency  of  the  Empire. 

Now  our  friends  in  this  country  seem  to  think 
that  if  a  separate  school  board,  composed  of  practi- 
cal men,  can  secure  control  of  the  boys  and  girls 
after  they  leave  the  public  schools,  then  our  voca- 
tional education  problem  would  in  large  part  be 
solved.  You  see  from  the  facts  that  I  have  cited 
that  German  experience  proves  no  such  thing. 

If  our  public  schools  are  not  what  they  ought  to 
be,  then  they  must  be  improved  and  efficiently 
managed,  just  as  are  the  industrial  schools.  That 
being  true,  then  the  second  school  board,  composed 
of  so-called  practical  men,  could  not  give  us  efficient 
workmen,  because  their  control  over  the  life  of 
the  child  does  not  extend  over  a  sufficiently  long 
period  of  time.  German  experience  does  teach 
that.  In  order  to  do  its  work  well  and  effectually, 
this  second  school  board  needs  to  have  the  child 
under  its  control  not  from  the  age  of  fourteen,  but 
from  the  age  of  six.  German  experience  does 
teach  that.  This,  however,  proves  our  conten- 
tion, that  we  need  one  school  board. 

The  advocates  of  the  dual-control  plan  have 
taken  it  for  granted  that  the  American  employers 
and  labor  leaders  are  quite  as  competent  to  give 
counsel  as  are  the  German  employers  and  labor- 
union  men.  The  Germans  have  gone  through 
these  schools.  They  are  in  a  position  to  know 
what  they  are  talking  about.    German  labor  unions 


Organization  Contrasted  347 

have  been  unanimous  in  their  support  of  industrial 
education  for  the  last  three  decades. 

The  American  labor  unions  are  just  through 
fighting  the  establishment  of  industrial  schools. 
Now,  since  the  schools  are  advancing  in  spite  of 
the  efforts  rather  than  because  of  the  assistance 
of  the  labor  unions,  some  people  are  already  pre- 
pared to  turn  the  management  over  to  them. 

Have  our  employers  of  capital  and  laboring 
men  shown  exceptionally  high  ability  in  managing 
interests  common  to  both?  I  think  not.  Perhaps 
no  country  in  the  world  shows  a  worse  situation 
than  does  the  United  States  with  reference  to 
strikes,  boycotts,  and  other  labor  disturbances. 
For  the  last  several  years,  the  troops  have  been 
stationed  almost  continually  in  one  or  more  fields 
of  industry  in  order  to  preserve  a  reasonable  peace. 
The  problem  of  educating  our  boys  and  girls  is  a 
much  larger  and  more  complicated  one  than  is 
the  settling  of  labor  disputes.  After  our  "practical 
men"  show  that  they  can  manage  an  easier  prob- 
lem (namely  the  labor  question),  then  we  shall 
be  ready  to  consider  reasons  why  they  deserve 
special  consideration  in  the  control  of  our  indus- 
trial schools. 

The  efficiency  of  our  industrial  schools  depends 
quite  as  much  on  culture,  morals,  and  discipline 
as  it  does  upon  mechanical  skill,  and  for  these 
reasons  all  classes  of  society  should  be  represented 
in  the  forces  that  influence  and  control  them. 


XX 


ECONOMIC  IMPORTANCE 


SO  far  it  has  not  been  possible  to  fix  with  any 
degree  of  exactness  the  economic  value  of 
industrial  and  commercial  education  in  a  highly- 
civilized  State,  because  there  are  so  many  cultural 
forces  at  work,  and  each  plays  an  intricate  part 
in  making  the  state  capable  of  competition  with 
the  rest  of  the  world. 

The  author  will  relate  a  recent  experience  to 
show  how  difficult  it  is  to  calculate  the  value  of 
industrial  education  in  a  modern  state.  In  the 
summer  of  1909,  he  met  in  Mostar,  Herzegovina, 
a  school  committee  that  had  been  sent  there  by 
the  Austrian  Government  to  report  on  the  effect 
of  the  industrial  school  and  on  the  social  and  eco- 
nomic conditions  of  that  region.  He  inquired 
what  they  thought  could  be  learned  from  a  school 
that  was  far  from  being  equal  to  those  Austria 
already  had,  and  especially  from  one  located  amidst 
such  Oriental  conditions.  The  answer  was  this: 
Here  was  an  exceptional  chance  to  study  the 
effect  of  a  modern  industrial  school,  which  had 
been  in  operation  for  ten  years,  in  a  city  and 

348 


Economic  Importance  349 

country  which  was  very  primitive  in  culture. 
Hence,  this  school  could  be  regarded  as  a  single 
influence  in  its  operations  on  society,  and  the  re- 
sults could  be  traced  so  much  more  easily  to  their 
causes. 

One  would  naturally  think  that  if  the  economic 
value  could  be  measured  anywhere,  it  would  be 
in  Germany,  for  where  could  one  find  a  nation 
that  keeps  better  records  and  fuller  statistics  in 
every  branch  of  industry  and  commerce,  in  the 
various  departments  of  her  schools?  Yet,  as  we 
shall  see  from  the  various  viewpoints  presented 
both  by  the  Germans  themselves  and  by  foreigners 
who  have  attempted  to  analyze  the  problem,  this 
question  will  need  a  long  period  of  careful  obser- 
vation by  future  educators,  economists,  and 
historians. 

That  commercial  and  industrial  schools  play  a  ^ 
great  role  in  keeping  up  the  trades  and  the  indus- 
ries  of  a  State,  and  do  much  toward  strengthening 
a  nation  in  competing  with  the  rest  of  the  world, 
no  one  doubts ;  but  it  is  their  relative  value  regard- 
ing which  the  discussion  arises.  ' 

Concerning  the  commercial  schools,  Dr.  Franz 
Zimmerman  says  in  his  book,  Handelsschulen, 
that  great  results  have  been  accomplished  in  the 
commercial  world  in  the  last  decade  through  the 
thoroughness  of  the  school  system.  German 
merchants  seem  to  be  playing  a  great  role  in  Brus- 
sels. Baron  de  Haulleville  says  in  the  Brussels 
Journal: 


350    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

Also  in  England  a  large  part  of  the  foreign  trade  is 
in  the  hands  of  the  Germans  under  English  firms;  so 
also,  English  trade,  at  the  Cape,  in  Bombay,  in  the 
Straits-Settlements,  in  Hongkong,  in  Shanghai,  Japan, 
Australia,  South  America,  and  Tasmania  is  managed 
by  the  Germans.  Trade  in  Amsterdam,  Rotterdam, 
and  Antwerp  is  powerfully  influenced  by  German 
houses.  Hamburg  is  becoming  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant harbors  in  the  world.  German  industry  is 
conquering  the  English  industry  everywhere. 

Foreigners  view  with  jealousy  the  success  of 
German  industry  and  commerce,  and  are  ever 
busy  trying  to  learn  the  reasons  therefor,  in  order 
successfully  to  direct  the  economic  struggle  against 
Germany. 

A  proof  of  this  is  the  expression  given  below: 
James  Graham,  Inspector  for  Commercial  Sub- 
jects to  the  West  Riding  County  Council,  when 
asked  whether  he  considered  that  Germany's 
outlay  in  commercial  education  was  bearing  fruit, 
answered:  "Most  decidedly.  You  have  only  to 
take  up  the  various  trade  reports  to  see  that. 
British  retrogression  in  one  part  or  another  of  the 
world  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  foreign  manufac- 
turers, the  merchants  and  their  agents,  possess  a 
training  that  enables  them  to  adapt  their  methods 
to  the  necessities,  financial  or  otherwise,  of  the 
countries  they  desire  to  trade  with."1     The  com- 

1  The  power  of  the  German  to  adapt  his  goods  to  the  foreign 
countries,  and  the  winning  of  the  markets  from  England,  are 
cited  also  by  Sombart,  Die  Volkswirtschraft  im  ig.  Jahrhundert, 
p.  129. 


Economic  Importance 


35i 


petition  is  increasing  and  the  danger  is  growing. 
A  few  years  ago  England's  exports  exceeded  those 
of  Germany  by  90,000,000  pounds;  last  year  (1898) 
the  excess  was  only  50,000,000  pounds. l 

In  order  to  show  the  development  in  commerce 
of  England,  Germany,  and  the  United  States,  we 
may  notice  the  table  below,  which  shows  the 
imports  and  exports  in  millions  of  Marks.2 


1890 


1906 


1907 


Great  Britain 
Germany 
United      States 
America 


of 


15,300.9 
8,195.2 

6,918.0 


21,798.7 
15,554-8 

12,475.8 


23,747.2 
17,006.7 

13,942.2 


Sir  Henry  Wood  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  the 
merchants  in  London  and  other  great  centers  of 
industry  were  struck  by  the  fact  that  so  many  young 
Germans  have  been  willing  to  come  over  and  accept 
lower  wages  than  would  be  paid  to  much  inferior 
English  clerks.  But  after  having  acquired  all  neces- 
sary knowledge  about  the  language  and  the  wants  of 
the  foreign  country,  they  were  quite  ready  either  to 
go  back  to  their  own  country,  or,  if  they  remained  in 
England,  to  set  up  as  rivals  of  their  employers.  The 
advent,  however,  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  the 
German  clerks  were  far  better  educated  for  commercial 
purposes  than  young  men  of  similar  class  in  England. 3 

1  Zeitschrift  fur  das  gesamte  kaufmdnnische  Unterrichtswesen, 
September,  1899,  p.  139. 

3  Bergische  Volkszeitung,  Aug.  12,  1908. 

»  Zeitschrift  fiir  das  gesamte  kaufmdnnische  Unterrichtswesen, 
July,  1899,  p.  99. 


352    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

Official  opinion  as  to  the  relationship  between 
the  economic  development  of  Germany  and  her 
trade  schools,  may  be  seen  from  the  following 
sentences: 

Germany  has  been  preparing  for  generations  for 
the  present  great  growth  in  its  manufactures  and 
commerce,  and  has  been  laying  a  broad  educational 
basis  for  industrial  progress.  This  education  has 
been  commercial  as  well  as  technical. 

Inquiries  made  in  all  directions  of  manufacturers, 
merchants,  dealers,  agents,  exporters,  and  importers 
elicited,  with  few  dissentient  voices,  an  almost  unani- 
mous expression  of  opinion  as  to  the  great  benefits 
conferred  upon  German  trade  by  the  provision  of 
thorough  practical  and  theoretical  instruction  for  all 
classes  of  persons  engaged  in  commercial  callings.1 

As  to  the  importance  of  the  industrial  schools, 
Prof,  von  Schmoller  says,  "the  industrial  schools 
must  raise  the  standard  of  life,  the  moral  character, 
knowledge  and  efficiency  of  the  lower  classes  .  .  .  " 

Also,  the  continued  existence  of  medium  and  small 
business  concerns  alongside  of  the  large  establishments 
and  a  better  scale  of  wages  for  the  personnel  in  the 
wholesale  establishments  are  dependent  upon  a  better 
industrial  and  technical  training.2 

^'Industrial  Education  and  Industrial  Conditions  in  Ger- 
many," Special  Consular  Reports,  vol.  xxxiii.,  Department  of 
Commerce  and  Labor,  pp.  296  and  301. 

2  Schmoller,  Das  untere  und  mittlere  gewerbliche  Schulwesen 
in  Preussen,  1881. 


Economic  Importance  353 

With  reference  to  the  point  just  mentioned, 
the  above  quoted  Consular  Reports  (vol.  xxxiii.) 
state: 

The  importance  of  the  textile  schools  to  the  country 
cannot  be  overestimated.  They  are  the  main  pillar 
by  virtue  of  which  the  German  textile  industry  main- 
tains its  competitive  power  in  the  foreign  market. 
Cheapness  of  labor  is  not  sufficient  to  attain  this  end. 
Cheap  hands  must  be  taught,  and  taught  well,  or 
their  work  will  in  the  end  cost  more  than  that  of  more 
expensive  hands  which  possess  high  skill  and  a  thor- 
ough understanding  of  the  trade.  This  demand  the 
German  schools  are  meeting  every  year.  The  German 
textile  industry  is  probably  more  largely  than  any 
other  industry  dependent  upon  foreign  markets. 
This  industry  is  one  of  her  greatest,  and  represents 
one  of  the  most  important  incomes  of  her  people. 

She  maintains  these  schools  in  order  to  maintain 
the  supremacy  of  German  textiles. 

The  report  further  refers  to  the  textile  schools 
as  the  "iron  clads"  of  German  commerce,  and  the 
most  powerful  weapons  of  German  industry.  * 

Concerning  knitting  schools,  we  read : 

German  knit  goods  to  the  value  of  many  millions 
of  dollars  are  exported  annually  not  only  to  the  United 
States,  but  to  European  countries  and  to  the  Far 
East.  This  great  competitive  ability  of  German  knit 
goods  is  due  to  three  causes:  (i)  cheapness  of  labor; 

^'Industrial  Education  and  Industrial  Conditions  in  Ger- 
many," Special  Consular  Reports,  vol.  xxxiii.,  1905,  p.  45. 

33 


354   Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

(2)  perfection  of  machinery;  (3)  skill  of  the  laborers, 
or,  in  other  words,  the  thoroughness  of  the  educational 
facilities  provided  for  the  instruction  of  young  men 
in  the  knitting  trade.1 

The  German  "thoroughness"  in  the  schools 
makes  the  acquiring  of  the  language  of  the  country 
with  which  the  German  deals  comparatively  easy. 
The  advantages  of  being  able  to  do  business  in 
the  language  of  the  purchasing  country  is  often 
cited  to  the  credit  of  the  German.  We  quote  just 
a  few  references  on  this  point. 

Sir  E.  C.  P.  Hull,  a  member  of  the  The  Techni- 
cal Education  Committee,  writes  to  the  Times 
that  the  great  advantage  the  German  traders  have 
over  the  English  is  the  ability  of  the  former  to 
use  foreign  languages.  He  states  that  during 
his  visit  to  the  Canary  Islands  he  noted  that  in 
nearly  every  small  village  the  people  were  sup- 
plied with  German  goods,  doubtless  through  the 
indefatigable  personal  efforts  of  German  travelers, 
everyone  of  whom,  no  doubt,  was  well  acquainted 
with  the  Spanish  language,  and  probably  the 
same  experience  would  be  afforded  nearly  every- 
where else  abroad. 

English  manufacturers  and  shippers  found  diffi- 
culty in  adapting  their  goods  to  the  tastes  of  their 
intended  customers  abroad,  and  the  writer  believed 
that  this  was  due  largely  to  their  inability  to  find 
competent  representatives  familiar  with  the  lan- 

1  Special  Consular  Reports,  vol.  xxxiii.,  1905,  p.  57. 


Economic  Importance  355 

guages   of    the    countries    selected    as    desirable 
foreign  markets.1 

Special  notice  should  be  directed  to  the  great  at- 
tention devoted  to  foreign  languages,  especially  to 
English.  As  a  result,  a  large  number  of  German 
merchants  are  able  to  draw  up  their  own  catalogues 
and  circulars  in  English,  without  extraneous  aid,  and 
so  contribute  to  the  export  of  German  goods.2 

One  finds  well-informed  Germans  who  maintain 
that  Germany  owes  her  high  industrial  power  to 
the  training  that  so  large  a  percentage  of  her  popu- 
lation derives  through  the  compulsory  military 
service.  It  is  argued  that,  by  this  means,  the 
young  men  learn  neatness,  acquire  a  stronger 
physique,  are  trained  in  punctuality,  obedience, 
respect  for  their  superiors,  etc.,  and  that  all  these 
traits  have  a  powerful  influence  when  the  young 
soldier  is  enrolled  in  the  industrial  army.  It  must 
be  granted  that  this  contention  has  some  validity. 
However,  it  is  not  hard  to  see  certain  disadvan- 
tages which  the  army  experience  so  often  brings 
to  the  young  man,  but  that  brings  us  to  a  discus- 
sion that  is  perhaps  too  far  removed  from  our 
subject.3 

1  Zeitschrift  fur  das  gesamte  kaufmannische  Unterrichtswesen, 
Nov.,  1898. 

3  "Industrial  Education  and  Industrial  Conditions  in  Ger- 
many." Special  Consular  Reports,  vol.  xxxiii.,  by  Dept.  of 
Commerce  and  Labor,  p.  301. 

3  Powell,  English  Consul,  Zeitschrift  fur  das  gesamte  kaufman- 
nische Unterrichtswesen,  Feb.,  1899,  p.  358. 


356   Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

Contrary  to  all  the  views  expressed  so  far  in 
this  chapter,  one  finds  those  who  maintain  that  it 
is  the  efficiency  of  the  public  schools  rather  than 
the  trade  school  that  has  helped  Germany  to 
become  such  a  great  industrial  nation,  and,  further- 
more, that  the  trade  and  commercial  schools  are 
the  result  of  trade  expansion,  and  not  the  cause 
of  it.1 

Others  claim  that  it  was  neither  the  schools 
that  made  the  trade,  nor  the  trade  that  made  the 
schools,  but  that  both  are  the  product  of  racial 
evolution.  It  is  argued  that  in  the  course  of 
history  races  rise  and  fall,  and  that  the  Germans 
were  divided  and  oppressed  throughout  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  before  the  Napoleonic  Era,  but  that  in 
the  last  one  hundred  years  the  pent-up  forces 
which  have  been  collecting  for  centuries  are  just 
expanding  themselves,  and  more  especially  since 
the  establishment  of  the  Empire.  It  is  contended 
that,  in  the  course  of  time,  the  German  racial 
force  will  have  expended  itself;  then  the  Slav  will 
be  likely  to  come  next  in  order  and  assume  rule 
and  leadership.  While  traveling  through  the 
Balkan  States,  I  found  a  vast  number  endorsing 
this  view. 

After  summing  up  all  the  probable  causes  of 
Germany's  great  industrial  expansion,  one  comes 

1  That  Germany's  forty  years  of  peace  preceding  the  great 
war  were  due  to  her  powerful  army  is  undoubtedly  true,  and 
establishes  a  further  connection  between  the  German  army  and 
the  economic  prosperity  of  the  Empire. 


Economic  Importance  357 

to  the  conclusion  that  it  was  not  this  thing  nor  \ 
that,  nor  any  one  of  a  dozen  things,  but  that  the 
combined  influences  of  racial  temperament, — 
such  as  economy,  hard  work,  integrity,  etc., — an 
harmonious  sentiment  and  action  on  the  part  of 
the  Government,  manufacturers,  and  labor  or- 
ganizations, have  played  a  great  role  in  making 
Germany  industrially  great.  The  schools  are  the  " 
cause  and  also  the  result  of  these  same  influences. 
They  are  mutually  dependent  upon  each  other. 

When  we  try  to  estimate  the  influence  that 
American  commercial  and  industrial  schools  have 
had  on  the  American  industrial  development,  we 
have  quite  a  different  set  of  facts  to  reckon  with 
from  those  we  found  in  Germany.  As  far  as 
individual  students  are  concerned,  we  have  seen 
repeatedly  that  an  industrial  and  commercial 
education  paid  enormously.     (See  pages  357-363.) 

The  economic  importance  of  the  American 
schools  seems  to  be  fully  attested  by  the  reports 
from  the  several  schools. 

The  annual  report  for  191 1  of  the  Hebrew  Tech- 
nical School  for  Girls  (see  page  193)  says: 


On  November  1st  last,  we  had  records  from  1,515 
of  our  former  pupils.  They  were  earning  in  the  ag- 
gregate $829,270  annually — an  average  of  $45.64  per 
month.  When  you  consider  that  these  girls  graduate 
from  the  school,  when  very  many  of  them  are  not 
much  over  sixteen  years  of  age,  and  that  the  greater 
number  of  the  graduates  are  only  a  few  years  out  of 


358    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

the  school,  and  begin  with  $6.00  or  $7.00  per  week, 
and  we  find  that  the  average  wage  is  $12.00  a  week, 
these  statistics  are  the  best  evidence  of  the  material 
and  real  success  of  the  school.  We  know  that  if  it 
had  not  been  for  this  supplementary  training  and  the 
education  in  some  trade  or  profession,  these  girls 
would  be  working  probably  for  $4.00  or  $5.00  a  week, 
and  some  would  be  receiving  less,  at  employments 
which  did  not  admit  of  so  much  chance  for  advance- 
ment and  which  are  not  as  healthful  nor  have  such 
good  surroundings. 

The  1912-13  catalogue  of  the  Manhattan  Trade 
School  for  Girls  throws  light  upon  the  success  of 
its  graduates.     Pertinent  citations  follow: 

"Follow-up  Work" 

The  task  of  "following-up"  trade  school  girls  is 
difficult,  especially  as  they  live  in  such  diverse  sections 
of  the  city.  It  would,  of  course,  be  of  great  value  to 
keep  records  of  all  girls,  whether  they  complete  the 
course  or  not,  since  helpful  and  interesting  compari- 
sons as  to  their  wages,  and  opportunities  for  employ- 
ment could  then  be  made.  With  the  present  corps 
of  teachers,  however,  this  is  impossible,  and  it  is  all 
that  the  school  can  do  to  follow  up  its  graduates, 
now  numbering  over  eleven  hundred. 

It  does  try,  however,  to  keep  a  record  of  the  first 
position  and  wage  taken  by  girls  who  drop  out  of 
school  without  completing  their  training,  and  even 
those  comparisons  are  interesting  and  enlightening. 
They  show: 

(a)  Trade  school  graduates  working  at  the  skilled 


Economic  Importance  359 

trades  for  which  they  have  been  trained,  with  82  per 
cent,  of  them  beginning  with  a  weekly  wage  of  $5  and 
above.     Some  as  high  as  $7  and  $9. 

(b)  Girls  who  drop  out  of  school  without  completing 
the  course  working  at  unskilled  jobs,1  with  81  per 
cent,  of  them  beginning  with  less  than  $5,  the  average 
being  but  $3.75,  and  some  receiving  as  low  as  $1. 

Advancement  of  Graduates 

Girls  who  graduate  readily  keep  in  touch  with  the 
school,  and  while  a  certain  number  drift  away  from 
the  school's  influence  and  are  lost  sight  of,  it  is  possible 
to  watch  the  advancement  of  a  fair  percentage  of  them 
for  several  years.  After  three  years  at  trade  the 
records  of  graduates  show : 

(a)  69  per  cent,  of  girls  from  the  dressmaking 
course  receiving  $9  per  week  or  above.  Some 
earning  as  high  as  $20. 

(b)  87  per  cent,  of  girls  from  the  operating  courses 
receiving  $9  or  above.  Some  earning  as  high 
as  $30. 

(c)  74  per  cent,  of  girls  from  the  millinery  course 
receiving  $9  or  above.  Some  earning  as  high 
as  $18. 

(d)  52  per  cent  of  girls  from  the  pasting  trade  re- 
ceiving $9  or  above.  Some  earning  as  high  as 
$16. 

1  These  jobs  are,  cash,  and  messenger  service,  markers,  button 
sewers,  basting  pullers,  candy  packers,  folding  handkerchiefs, 
pasting  labels,  threading  shuttles,  stripping  tobacco,  running 
errands,  and  numerous  others. 


360   Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

There  are,  too,  numberless  individual  cases,  which 
cannot  be  made  to  show  in  averages  or  percentages, 
but  which  are  remarkable  examples  of  what  a  right 
start  may  mean  to  a  girl.  An  illustration  is  the  case 
of  Anna  B ,  who  had  drifted  about  from  one  un- 
skilled job  to  another  for  nearly  two  years,  never 
reaching  more  than  $6  a  week.  The  family,  a  large 
one,  were  in  miserable  circumstances  and  were  being 
helped  by  the  Charity  Organization  Society.  The  girl 
was  sent  to  the  trade  school  and  the  small  wage  which 
she  was  earning  was  paid  to  the  family  from  the 
Student  Aid  Fund.  Anna  completed  her  course  in 
operating  and  went  to  work,  and  in  less  than  a  year 
and  a  half  was  able  to  make,  at  "piece  work,"  in  the 
busy  season,  as  high  as  $35  a  week.  In  twenty-three 
weeks  during  the  past  winter  she  has  made  over  $600 
at  straw  operating,  and  when  the  busy  season  was 
over  she  was  scarcely  out  of  work  a  day  before  she 
found  a  position  at  embroidery  operating,  where  she 
received  a  weekly  wage  of  $9.  She  was  changed  from 
a  discouraged,  unskilled  worker  to  an  enthusiastic, 
skilled  one,  rejoicing  in  the  fact  that  she  needed  help 
from  no  one,  but  was  able  to  work  not  only  for  herself, 
but,  as  she  herself  said,  was  "the  main  support  of  her 
entire  family." 

The  Baron  de  Hirsch  Trade  School  catalogue 
for  1 9 12  reports  the  following: 

A  recent  investigation  has  shown  that  the  average 
wages  of  some  two  hundred  pupils  before  entrance  to 
the  school  was  $5.39  per  week.  They  were  engaged  in 
the  various  unskilled  occupations  that  do  not  require 
any  previous  training  or  preparation.     After  receiving 


Economic  Importance 


36i 


a  five  and  a  half  months'  course  as  a  special  prepara- 
tion to  enter  trades,  they  earned  immediately  after 
graduation  an  average  of  $7.54  per  week,  or  a  gain 
of  $2.15,  due  to  their  ability  to  enter  a  skilled  trade. 

There  is  a  constant  demand  for  skilled  helpers  as 
for  skilled  mechanics,  and  our  graduates  find  little 
difficulty  in  securing  immediate  employment  after 
leaving  the  school,  at  wages  ranging  from  $5.00  to 
$15.00  per  week,  and  a  prospect  of  being  able  to  earn 
journeymen's  wages  within  a  year  or  two. 

The  record  since  1889,  of  the  graduates  of  the 
Hebrew  Technical  Institute  (see  p.  178)  is  shown 
in  the  following  table : 


Class 

Number  of  Graduates 

Average  Weekly 
Earnings 

1889 

17 

60.00 

1890 

16 

50.00 

1891 

19 

50.00 

1892 

35 

50.00 

1893 

26 

45-00 

1894 

3i 

50.00 

1895 

33 

50.00 

1896 

34 

50.00 

1897 

19 

37.00 

1898 

30 

40.00 

1899 

3i 

40.00 

1900 

35 

36.00 

1901 

40 

33-00 

1902 

34 

32.00 

1903 

46 

31.00 

1904 

52 

27.00 

1905 

63 

28.00 

1906 

59 

26.00 

1907 

73 

21.00 

1908 

82 

21.00 

1909 

78 

16.00 

1910 

88 

15.00 

1911 

67 

11.00 

1912 

7i 

8.00 

362   Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

According  to  a  recent  report  the  number  fol- 
lowing mechanical  work  was  728,  or  74  per  cent, 
of  all  the  graduates.  The  average  weekly  earn- 
ings are  based  upon  the  earnings  reported  by  774 
graduates. 

However,  all  this  is  still  far  from  proving  that 
the  United  States  owes  its  industrial  position  to  the 
schools.  In  truth,  as  is  the  case  in  Germany, 
the  industrial  and  commercial  progress  due  to  the 
schools  cannot  be  statistically  or  mathematically 
measured.  But  we  can  see  from  our  investigation 
that  industrial  and  commercial  education  has 
played  relatively  a  far  greater  role  in  developing 
Germany's  commercial  power  than  is  the  case  in 
the  United  States.  Let  us  recapitulate  what  we 
have  established.  The  laws  setting  on  foot  indus- 
trial schools  for  the  masses  have  been  passed  only 
within  the  last  few  years,  and  few  schools  are 
in  operation  as  yet.  The  schools  established  by 
endowment,  charity,  and  religious  organization 
enroll  a  comparatively  small  number  of  the  Ameri- 
can industrial  and  commercial  army;  besides, 
they  are  too  recent  to  have  had  any  marked  influ- 
ence on  the  nation's  industrial  power. 

These  findings  on  the  Money  Value  of  Educa- 
tional Training  are  the  result  of  much  investigation 
by  Mr.  James  Dodge  when  president  of  the  Society 
of  American  Mechanical  Engineers.  It  is  worthy 
of  careful  study. 


Economic  Importance 


363 


$35 

$30 

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Money  Value  of  Educational  Training: 

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18  17  18  19  20  21  23  23  24  25  26  27  28  28  30  31  32  33  34  35  36  37  38 


Education  Department,  the  International  Com- 
mittee of  Young  Men's  Christian  Associations, 
124  East  28th  Street,  New  York. 


The  Money  Value  of  an  Education  in  the  Wil- 
liamson Free  School  (see  p.  168,  and  table  on  p. 
364). 

The  fifty-eight  members  who  graduated  in  the 


364     Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 


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Age 

,Only  5  %  of  these  workers 
ever  get  more  than  $15.00 


35$  remains  for  a  con- 
siderable length  of  time 
with  the  same  firm  at 
about  the  same  wage. 

^20%  quit  voluntarily. 


40%  are  dismissed  and 
with  difficulty  get  a  pos. 
ition  that  pays  about  the 
same 


19      20 


26      27 


Economic  Importance  365 

class  March  29,  1913,  reported  on  November  1,  of 
the  same  year,  that  they  were  employed  at  the 
following  trades: 

12  as  bricklayers 
15  as  carpenters 

13  as  machinists 

10  as  patternmakers 

Their  average  compensation  was  $18.03  per 
week.  The  average  wage  before  this  year  was 
$16.60  six  months  after  graduation. 

The  lack  of  occupational  training  is  further 
substantiated  by  recent  investigations  by  the 
National  Committee  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association : 

From  official  reports  of  various  national  and  state 
educational  commissions  we  learn  that  there  are  more 
than  370  different  kinds  of  professions,  occupations, 
trades  and  lines  of  life  work  represented  in  America. 
For  only  a  small  number  of  these  occupations  have 
definite  facilities  supplementing  public  school  privi- 
leges been  provided  to  help  men  and  boys  prepare  for 
life  work ;  while  in  some  foreign  nations  the  correspond- 
ing training  facilities — commercial,  industrial  or 
technical — are  many  times  greater  than  in  America. 

From  the  same  source  comes  this  information : 

From  the  Sage  Foundation  reports  we  learn: 

(1)  That  of  one  hundred  boys  in  the  first  grade 
there  are  only  fifty-five  in  the  fifth  grade,  twenty- 


366   Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

seven  in  the  eighth,  six  in  the  high  school,  and  one  to 
enter  college. 

(2)  That  only  five  per  cent,  of  the  males  in  the 
nation  are  fitted  by  definite  educational  training  for 
their  occupations  or  vocations. 

These  and  similar  striking  facts  show  the  great  lack 
of  the  more  adequate  and  fuller  use  of  the  vast  wealth 
of  American  public  school  facilities  by  the  boys. 

The  business  colleges  have  had  a  much  longer 
history,  but  the  very  fact  that  they  preceded  the 
industrial  schools  shows,  in  itself,  that  they  are 
rather  the  product  of  our  great  industries  and 
commerce  than  the  cause  of  them.  This  last 
point  is  further  substantiated  by  the  very  nature 
of  the  curriculum.  (See  p.  262.)  The  relation 
between  the  business  college  courses  and  the  busi- 
ness world  is  as  a  rule  quite  indefinite. s  The  aim 
of  the  American  business  college  is  chiefly  to  pre- 
pare pupils  to  take  care  of  business.  The  course 
is  too  short,  generally,  even  to  attempt  much 
more.  In  Germany  the  course  is  longer,  and  the 
aim  there  is  quite  decidedly  not  only  to  enable 
pupils  to  take  care  of  business,  but  considerable 
time  is  spent  in  the  classes  one  way  or  another  in 
discussing  with  pupils  plans  as  to  how  business 
may  be  created. 

This   close   relationship   in   Germany   between 

1  Commissioner  Draper,  in  his  speech,  June,  1908,  before  the 
National  Educational  Association,  called  attention  to  the  lack 
of  articulation  between  the  educational  and  industrial  systems 
of  the  country. 


Economic  Importance  367 

commerce  and  industry  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
schools  on  the  other,  was  noted  in  connection  with 
the  facts  that  so  large  a  percentage  of  the  teachers 
come  out  of  practical  life,  that  the  labor  unions 
stand  in  such  close  relation  to  the  schools,  and 
that  the  employers  are  brought,  in  so  many  ways, 
into  touch  with  the  pupils  and  teachers.  All  this 
shows  that  the  schools  are  really  a  part  of  industry 
or  business;  therefore  it  is  only  natural  that  they 
would  and  do  have  a  much  more  direct  influence 
on  German  commerce  and  industry  than  is  char- 
acteristic of  such  institutions  in  the  United  States, 
where  the  business  schools  are  so  largely  private 
institutions,  and  where  labor  organizations  are 
still  more  or  less  hostile  to  the  schools. 

The  way  in  which  the  German  schools  are  sup- 
ported, especially  the  trade  schools,  is  another 
direct  evidence  that  the  schools  make  the  indus- 
tries. Ask  some  director  of  a  textile  school  to 
explain  to  you  how  his  school  is  supported.  You 
will  invariably  be  surprised  to  learn  of  the  number 
of  channels  through  which  the  school  derives  its 
financial  support.  Every  group  of  the  industrial 
order  that  is  being  benefited  is  called  upon  to 
contribute.  If  the  various  classes  of  manufac- 
turers and  workers  were  not  fully  convinced  that 
the  school  was  rendering  valuable  service,  they 
would  not  help  pay  the  expenses. 

All  this  shows  the  actual  interdependence  of 
schools,  on  the  one  hand,  and  industry  and  com- 
merce on  the  other,  and  for  that  reason  it  is  only 


368   Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

natural  that  these  institutions  should  have  much 
more  influence  in  this  direction  than  could  possibly 
be  the  case  in  the  United  States,  where  the  busi- 
ness colleges  are  chiefly  private  institutions,  and, 
where  labor  unions  are  still  more  or  less  indifferent 
if  not  in  actual  opposition,  to  trade  schools. 


XXI 

IMPORTANCE    ATTACHED    TO    MORALS    AND    HABITS 

AS     A     FACTOR     IN     THE     INDUSTRIAL    AND 

COMMERCIAL      SCHOOL     DEVELOPMENT 

THERE  is  no  doubt  but  that  in  theory  most 
people  would  agree  to  the  proposition  that 
the  higher  a  nation's  morals,  and  the  better  its 
habits,  the  more  powerful  that  nation  is  indus- 
trially and  commercially.  That  being  taken  for 
granted,  let  us  examine  briefly  what  is  being  done 
to  improve  the  morals  and  better  the  habits  of 
the  school  children  and  young  men  and  women  in 
both  Germany  and  the  United  States. 

It  is  easy  to  show  that  educators  and  teachers 
in  both  countries  are  interested  in  these  questions, 
but  the  question  for  us  is,  which  country  regards 
them  of  the  more  importance,  and  which  spends 
the  greater  effort  in  having  good  morals  and  good 
habits  inculcated  into  the  coming  generations. 

In  order  to  have  Germany's  position  well  stated 
we  will  quote  from  the  eminent  Pache,  whom  we 
have  so  often  cited:1 

It  is  a  well-known  fact,  that  children  at  the  age  of 
fourteen  years  have  not  yet  reached  their  full  moral 
1  Pache,  Fortbildungsschulen,  book  i.,  p.  28. 
24  369 


37°   Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

development!  .  .  .  With  the  awakening  of  adoles- 
cence, changes  in  disposition  frequently  come  about, 
that  can  be  conducted  in  right  channels  only  through 
sympathetic  and  most  watchful  care.  The  master 
workman  and  employer  very  seldom  take  the  time  to 
concern  themselves  about  the  character  development 
of  the  young  helpers  intrusted  in  their  care,  and  even 
if  they  did  attempt  to  give  instruction,  they  would 
not  be  in  possession  of  the  necessary  experiences  in 
this  field,  which  would  bring  about  the  desired  influ- 
ences. For  this  reason,  it  is  not  only  desirable,  but 
really  necessary,  that  psychologically  and  pedagogi- 
cally  trained  persons  should  have  an  opportunity  to 
come  in  contact  with  the  pupils  who  have  completed 
the  public  schools,  in  order  to  foster  a  normal  moral 
development  with  a  definite  goal  in  view.  Hence  in 
the  interest  of  popular  education,  we  need  the  con- 
tinuation school. 

Pache  furthermore  calls  attention  to  the  alarm- 
ingly high  percentage  of  Germans  suffering  from 
sexual  diseases.  He  discusses  in  a  long  and  well- 
written  chapter,  the  task  of  the  continuation 
school  in  the  struggle  to  raise  the  standard  of 
morality  and  to  diminish  the  use  of  alcohol.  He 
writes: 

It  must  be  distinctly  stated  at  this  time  that  our 
race  has  been  subjected  to  serious  danger  of  forfeiting 
health  and  strength,  and  thereby  becoming  incapable 
of  fulfilling  the  great  duties  imposed  upon  it.  The 
situation  is  a  fateful  one,  and  in  the  interest  of  the 
future  of  the  German  people,  the  battle  against  im- 
morality must  be  taken  up  with  all  decisiveness.     The 


Morals  and  Habits  371 

continuation  schools  dare  not  withdraw  from  the 
contest.  It  is  a  matter  for  serious  consideration 
whether  the  time  has  not  arrived,  when  the  physician 
must  be  called  to  the  school  to  present  in  an  unvar- 
nished exposition  the  chief  requisities  of  a  moral  life. 

In  another  connection  Pache  says:  "What 
strength  the  poison  of  sexual  diseases  has  left  to 
the  people,  has  been  taken  from  them  by  the 
misuse  of  alcohol." 

In  agreement  with  Pache,  there  is  a  demand 
from  many  quarters  that  the  physician  be  brought 
into  the  continuation  school,  in  order  that  the 
youth  may  be  directed  by  professional  authority 
in  courses  having  to  do  with  the  conduct  of  life. 
In  an  article  in  the  Deutsche  Fortbildungsschule, 
Hans  Hilbert,  Dresden,  discusses  the  subject  in 
a  very  enlightening  manner. 

The  author  brings  forward  the  view  that  the 
pupils  accept  the  information  of  a  physician  more 
willingly  and  with  closer  attention,  than  the  same 
facts  given  out  by  a  regular  teacher.  The  teacher 
is  less  qualified  for  this  form  of  instruction,  because 
he  has  not  so  completely  acquired  the  specialized 
knowledge  pertaining  to  the  topic.  Furthermore, 
they  know  the  public  school  teacher  so  well,  and 
many  harbor  the  suspicion  that  the  old  school 
tyrant  is  still  trying  to  treat  them  as  children. 

In  still  another  connection  much  help  is  expected 
from  the  continuation  school.  In  the  session  of 
the  Prussian  Parliament  of  January  29,  1908,  the 
"  Abgeordnete  "  Schiffer  presented  alarming  state- 


372    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

ments  regarding  criminal  statistics,  and  possible 
means  of  correction.  Amongst  other  things  he 
said: 

In  the  year  1882,  there  were  30,698  juvenile  offen- 
ders committed  under  the  laws  of  the  Empire.  This 
number  reached  50,028  in  the  year  1904.  Of  this 
number  16.9  per  cent,  were  guilty  of  the  second  offense. 
In  the  two  decades  of  18 82-1 901,  the  rate  of  criminal- 
ity increased .  Without  regard  to  age ,  the  rate  increased 
is  15  per  cent.,  but  if  juvenile  offenders  alone  are 
considered,  the  rate  of  increase  is  24  per  cent.  These 
figures  show  that  the  rate  of  increase  for  the  juvenile 
class  is  out  of  proportion  to  the  increase  in  population, 
and  out  of  proportion  to  the  increase  of  the  criminal 
population  itself. 

These  are  alarming  figures;  but  I  do  not  believe 
that  we  can  maintain  that  they  are  in  any  way  sur- 
prising. The  numbers  that  have  been  presented, 
correspond,  no  doubt,  with  the  experiences  that  we 
have  every  day  and  hour  in  daily  life.  That  our 
growing  youth  find  themselves  in  a  status  of  declining 
morals  rather  than  in  one  of  improvement,  is  not  to 
be  denied. 

If  we  wish  to  combat  the  unfavorable  conditions 
presented  by  our  youth,  whose  criminal  record  can 
make  only  a  one-sided  impression,  it  will  be  necesary 
to  go  back  to  the  factors  out  of  which  the  moral  life 
of  our  people  springs.  We  shall  have  to  go  to  the 
school  and  home;  we  shall  have  to  test  the  relation- 
ship of  school  and  church  to  the  on-coming  youth. 

We  shall  have  to  ask  ourselves  the  further  question, 
if  during  the  time  between  the  dismissal  from  the  school 
and  the  entrance  into  an  occupation,  a  more  watchful 


Morals  and  Habits  373 

care  must  be  exercised,  an  extension  of  school  training 
of  some  sort;  for  instance,  a  continued  development 
of  the  continuation  school. 

Recently  the  author  addressed  a  prominent 
German  continuation  school  teacher  regarding 
the  value  he  placed  upon  the  moral  training  of  the 
continuation  school.  Among  other  statements 
this  teacher  made  the  following: 

As  concerns  the  social  value,  the  continuation  school 
has  the  duty  to  impress  upon  the  young  people  a  civic 
responsibility.  The  pupils  in  the  period  of  their 
greatest  physical  development,  in  the  years  of  forma- 
tion and  indecision,  must  have  their  attention  directed 
to  the  ethical  things  of  life.  They  must  be  trained  to 
be  respectable  persons  and  true  citizens. 

This  goal  cannot  be  attained  through  special  in- 
struction in  morals,  but  through  the  above-named 
instruction,  and  special  child  welfare  organizations 
(boys'  clubs,  etc.).  In  this  sense,  there  devolves  the 
task  of  fostering  a  national  spirit  in  our  continuation 
schools,  which  is  not  only  to  be  highly  recommended, 
but  has  become  all  the  more  necessary,  the  more  the 
demoralizing  force  of  the  Social  Democratic  party 
makes  itself  felt  as  an  instrument  of  destruction  in 
the  relations  of  State  and  society.  For  this  reason, 
the  training  of  national  loyalty  finds  the  most  power- 
ful support  in  the  continuation  school.  No  doubt, 
every  attempt  to  introduce  religious  instruction  into 
the  German  continuation  schools  will  be  shattered, 
which  is  as  it  should  be,  but  for  the  development  of 
moral  principles,  every  continuation  school  will  give 
the  widest  latitude. 


374   Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

Views  similar  to  those  indicated  above  were  ex- 
pressed as  early  as  1877  by  Rudolph  Nagel,  who 
outlined  the  goal  of  the  industrial  schools  of  Ger- 
many to  be  in  part  a  means  of  "raising  the  status 
of  the  handicraft  worker,  and  through  thorough 
education,  the  establishing  a  dam  against  social- 
istic and  other  false  doctrines,  that  only  too  easily 
find  access  into  the  heart  of  the  lazy  laborer." 

Many  other  schoolmen  have  expressed  the  same 
opinion  to  the  author,  to  the  effect  that  the 
Social  Democratic  ideas  were  to  be  combated  in 
the  continuation  school.  On  the  other  hand,  one 
finds  directors  and  teachers  who  scoff  at  the  idea 
that  the  continuation  school  has  as  one  of  its 
moral  duties,  to  fight  against  Socialism. 

In  the  meantime,  the  Social  Democrats  are 
trying  hard  to  get  the  boys  of  the  continuation 
schools  enlisted  in  Social  Democratic  Clubs.  Up 
to  August,  1907,  there  were  between  20,000  and 
30,000  pupils  in  Prussia  alone  enrolled  in  the  Social 
Democratic  Unions.  In  1907,  there  were  only 
1300  enrolled  in  the  unions  situated  in  Berlin, 
but  in  August,  1909,  there  were  13,000. J 

There  is  yet  another  type  of  directors  and  teach- 
ers who  seem  not  to  have  thought,  from  any  point 
of  view  whatever,  about  the  moral  side  of  the 
continuation  school.  In  fact,  when  asked  what 
the  continuation  school  can  do  in  the  way  of 
advancing  morals,  it  often    occurs  that  they  in 

1  Lecture  by  Dr.  Kiihne  at  the  Commercial  High  School  of 
Berlin  in  1909. 


Morals  and  Habits  375 

turn  will  ask  what  is  meant  by  morals.  One  sees 
at  once  that  the  word  does  not  convey  any  defi- 
nite idea  to  them,  as  it  does  among  American 
teachers. 

These  same  schoolmen  explain  that  they  feel 
that  education  and  morality  have  no  connection 
at  all.  In  truth,  they  argue  that  education  does 
not  improve  morals,  but  gives  power  for  the  exer- 
cise of  a  more  refined  immorality.  Hence  the 
moral  problem  is  for  them  quite  outside  the  whole 
school  organization.  This  is  a  view  that,  in  my 
opinion,  is  based  on  a  totally  false  conception  of 
education. 

The  women  of  the  German  schools  seem  to  lay 
greater  stress  on  the  moral  and  ethical  side  of  the 
training  than  do  the  men.  The  goal  is  ideally 
stated  in  Theorie  und  Praxis  der  Madchen-Fort- 
bildungsschule  (see  pp.  26,  46,  and  85),  by  Marga- 
rete  Henschke. 

It  is  the  realizing  of  education  of  the  masses,  the 
manners  of  the  populace,  and  the  vocational  diligence 
of  the  people,  that  one  hopes  to  foster  in  the  continu- 
ation school.  .  .  .  The  zeal  after  a  higher  education 
may  estrange  from  the  common  duties  of  life,  and  in 
bestowing  a  one-sided  intellectual  development  it  is 
possible  to  give  to  the  masses  a  fatal  gift.  Only  where 
the  advance  in  education  is  accompanied  by  a  parallel 
growth  in  good  breeding  will  there  result  a  true  bless- 
ing to  the  people.  Only  where  the  continuation 
school  keeps  in  mind  its  ethical  tasks,  will  the  work 
be  really  profitable. 


376   Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany  ' 

That  the  campaign  against  alcohol  belongs  to 
the  list  of  tasks  confronting  the  continuation 
school  has  already  been  mentioned  at  the  begin- 
ning of  this  chapter,  but  there  still  remains  the 
consideration  of  the  practical  measures  in  vogue  in 
Germany  and  America  for  coping  with  this  question. 
In  Germany,  the  fact  that  alcohol  is  of  powerful 
destructive  character  upon  the  economic  force 
of  the  Empire  seems  in  theory  to  be  fairly  well 
recognized,  but  in  practice  it  is  but  vaguely 
comprehended. 

From  the  standpoint  of  theory,  we  shall  cite 
two  views.  The  eminent  economist,  J.  Conrad, 
states  in  his  Nationalokonomie  (vol.  i.,  p.  32) : 

The  most  flagrant  enemy  of  every  achievement, 
which  also  embraces  a  great  danger  of  degeneration 
amongst  us,  is  alcoholism.  The  majority  of  the  prison 
population,  inmates  of  insane  institutions  and  alms- 
houses are  there  because  of  alcoholism.  The  most 
ravaging  effect  is  wrought  through  the  regular  use 
of  alcohol  as  a  daily  sustenance,  the  pursuit  of  which, 
as  medical  science  in  recent  times  has  made  clear, 
gradually  undermines  the  nervous  system.  In  Ger- 
many, it  is  true,  drunkenness  has  decreased  in  the 
last  century  but  the  regular  consumption  has  increased 
to  a  critical  degree,  and  threatens,  in  a  high  degree, 
the  efficiency  of  the  people. 

In  the  same  vein,  the  Landesgewerberat,  Dr. 
Kuhne,  discussed  the  situation  in  his  lectures 
delivered  before  the  commercial  high  school  of 
Berlin.     He  described  in  detail  the  tremendous 


Morals  and  Habits  377 

consequences  that  alcohol  consumption  was  having 
in  Germany  on  the  physical  and  mental  powers 
of  the  laborer,  and  he  urged  the  continuation 
school  teachers  to  use  their  influence  to  bring 
about  a  more  moderate  use  of  it. 

Despite  the  fact  that  nothing  seems  so  easy  to 
prove  as  the  awful  effects  of  alcohol  on  health, 
morals,  and  the  industrial  strength  of  the  nation, 
the  attitude  that  the  schools  take  in  combating 
the  use  of  it,  is  astonishingly  weak.  The  teaching 
along  this  line  is  based  on  a  wrong  pedagogical 
idea.  The  idea  prevails  to  such  a  large  extent 
that  the  teacher  and  older  folks  may  be  allowed 
to  do  many  things  that  are  forbidden  to  the  youth. 

To  illustrate  this  point  the  author  will  relate  a 
typical  experience  in  connection  with  an  industrial 
school.  At  a  Christmas  feast  of  an  industrial 
continuation  school,  at  which  the  school  author- 
ities and  pastor  were  present,  a  most  beautiful 
program  was  rendered  by  the  boys  and  excellent 
speeches  were  made.  In  fact,  the  intellectual 
side  of  the  whole  affair  was  all  that  could  be  wished. 
But  now  let  us  examine  the  influences  that  were 
at  work  on  the  other  side  as  affecting  good  habits, 
self-control,  the  teaching  by  example  rather  than 
by  precept,  etc.  To  say  that  I  was  astonished 
is  putting  it  mildly!  The  three  hundred  or  more 
boys  between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and  seventeen 
were  not  allowed  to  smoke,  but  the  school  author- 
ities and  the  pastor  were  in  the  same  room,  and 
smoked  all  the  time.     I  inquired  carefully,  as  to 


378    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

whether  the  boys  really  observed  the  rule,  but  was 
assured  by  the  school  authorities  that  practically 
all  of  the  boys  smoked  secretly,  and  were  anxiously 
awaiting  the  completion  of  their  continuation  school 
course  in  order  to  do  so  openly  as  their  elders  were 
doing.  Each  boy  was  allowed  three  glasses  of  beer 
and  no  wine  at  all,  but  the  school  authorities  and 
pastor  drank  several  bottles  of  wine  each,  and 
later  drank  one  glass  of  beer  after  another.  This 
is  not  an  exceptional  instance,  but  represents  the 
general  custom  throughout  the  Empire. 

So  often  one  will  see  the  continuation  school- 
boys go  out  on  a  walking  tour  with  their  teacher. 
No  sooner  are  they  started  than  the  teacher  lights 
a  cigar;  later  in  the  day  they  will  practically  all 
drink  beer,  and  it  sometimes  happens  that  one  or 
more  of  the  boys  become  intoxicated.  In  view  of 
the  great  admiration  which  one  must  have  both 
for  the  industrial  and  trade  continuation  schools, 
it  is  with  keen  regret  that  one  makes  such  obser- 
vations as  the  above.  It  must  be  added  that  some 
German  teachers  are  total  abstainers,  and  that  the 
fight  for  reform  is  going  on.  There  are  many 
others  who  claim  that  they  practice  moderate 
drinking;  but  those  who  thoroughly  understand 
the  alcohol  question,  know  quite  well  that  the 
11 drinking  in  moderation"  theory  has  little  weight. 

The  economic  power  of  Germany  could  be 
increased  much  faster  and  easier,  if  the  directors 
and  teachers  would  set  to  work  seriously  and 
earnestly  to  help  reduce   Germany's  drink   bill, 


Morals  and  Habits  379 

instead  of  straining  exclusively  toward  intellec- 
tual and  pedagogical  efficiency.  Power  could  be 
gained  so  much  easier  by  stopping  the  wasted 
strength  than  by  attempting  to  produce  a  higher 
productive  efficiency. 

It  is  really  astonishing  that  the  school  author- 
ities who,  as  we  have  seen,  are  doing  so  much  in 
such  an  admirable  and  strictly  scientific  and  peda- 
gogical way  to  increase  the  productive  power  of 
the  Empire  by  increasing  the  efficiency  of  the 
future  industrial  workers,  at  the  same  time  pay  so 
little  attention  to  the  terrific  loss  which  Germany's 
industrial  efficiency  suffers  through  alcohol. 

And  now  what  is  the  moral  influence  obtaining 
in  the  industrial  and  commercial  schools  of  the 
United  States? 

We  have  already  noted  that  the  conviction  that 
industrial  education  will  reduce  the  amount  of 
crime  is  one  of  the  strong  motives  forwarding  the 
movement.  (See  p.  272.)  That  the  formation  of 
good  morals  and  habits  is  considered  such  a  vital 
part  of  these  schools,  is  fully  indicated  by  the 
character  of  the  speeches  and  lectures  delivered  at 
the  conventions  and  before  the  societies  that  have 
under  discussion  industrial  education. ' 

Right  along  the  line  of  moral  discussion  one 
finds  a  great  difference  between  an  American  and 
German  program  for  a  teacher's  convention  or 

1  Reports  of  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Edu- 
cation. 


380    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

summer  institute.1  Things  which  seem  quite 
important  to  an  American  would  often  be  deemed 
quite  out  of  place  by  a  German,  who  is  always 
inclined  to  emphasize  the  economic  side  of  things. 

1  The  following  questions  were  proposed  to  Professor  W.  S. 
Ashby,  a  former  President  of  the  Business  Educators'  Associa- 
tion. His  answers  to  the  questions  set  will  show  the  general 
trend  of  thought  in  an  American  convention. 

1.  "Is  the  question  of  honesty  discussed  very  much  in  the 
commercial  division  of  the  Business  Educators'  Association?" 
"Yes,  a  committee  was  appointed  sometime  ago  to  look  into  the 
conduct  of  fraudulent  schools.  And,  I  might  also  say  that  there 
are  usually  two  or  three  addresses  in  relation  to  Business  Ethics." 

2.  "In  this  same  Association  are  the  following  discussed? 

(a)  "Is  morality  essential  to  business  success?"  "Yes,  this 
subject  is  frequently  discussed.  In  fact,  there  are  one  or  two 
men  on  the  program  to  handle  that  topic  this  year." 

(b)  "Is  the  tobacco  habit  discussed  in  any  form?"  "The 
cigarette  habit  is  frequently  discussed ;  however,  there  is  not  so 
much  said  about  the  tobacco  habit." 

(c)  "Is  the  alcohol  question  or  drink  question  discussed?" 
"This  too,  is  frequently  discussed." 

3.  "How  are  you  impressed  on  the  whole  with  the  business 
college  teachers  as  builders  of  character?"  "It  is  my  opinion 
that  from  a  moral  standpoint  the  average  commercial  teacher  is 
equal,  if  not  superior,  to  the  literary  teacher.  A  business  man 
is  forced  to  deal  honorably  with  his  fellow-citizens  or  go  out  of 
business." 

(a)  "Do  you  feel  that  because  business  colleges  come  into 
closer  contact  with  the  practical  world,  that  for  this  reason  they 
insist  more  on  honesty,  morals,  etc.,  than  other  teachers  or  men 
in  ordinary  life?"  "Yes,  their  environment  is  such  that  they 
are  forced  to  take  a  decided  stand  on  the  right  side  of  these 
questions.  The  idea  and  purpose  of  the  National  Commercial 
Teachers'  Federation  is  for  the  upbuilding  of  the  cause  of  com- 
mercial education  in  the  United  States.  It  is  wielding  a  great 
influence  and  is  to  a  great  extent  shaping  the  policy  of  the  schools 
that  are  engaged  in  this  work." 


Morals  and  Habits  381 

This  especial  moral  stress  is  brought  about  to  some 
extent  by  the  fact  that  in  the  United  States  so 
many  more  women  take  part  in  the  programs  than 
is  the  case  in  Germany. 

In  the  United  States,  the  teachers  are  expected 
to  set  the  example  in  good  habits.  Practically 
all  American  public  school  teachers  are  total  ab- 
stainers. The  same  is  true  of  the  industrial  and 
commercial  teachers.  In  general  it  may  be  said 
that  a  teacher  who  would  drink  a  glass  of  beer  in 
the  presence  of  his  pupils,  would  be  practically 
sure  to  lose  his  position.  To  be  seen  going  in  or 
out  of  a  saloon  would  require  an  explanation.  In 
a  great  many  of  the  smaller  colleges  in  America, 
and  in  a  very  great  number  of  the  public  schools, 
a  teacher  who  smokes  will  not  be  employed,  no 
matter  how  capable  he  may  be. 

In  our  schools  we  have  the  advantage  of  being 
free  from  religious  controversies.  All  parties 
have  been  able  to  unite  much  more  strongly  in 
teaching  morals  and  inculcating  good  habits. 
In  Germany,  instead  of  giving  a  proper  amount  of 
attention  to  these  requirements,  valuable  time 
is  wasted  in  trying  to  instill  religious  dogma  into 
the  minds  of  the  boys  and  girls.  Instead  of  mak- 
ing them  German  patriots,  who  have  full  confidence 
in  their  country  and  countrymen,  it  breeds  a  feel- 
ing of  distrust.  The  Germans,  as  a  rule,  do  not 
seem  to  be  aware  of  the  tremendously  high  ideals 
and  social  standards  prevailing  in  the  United 
States.     They  are  inclined   to  judge  the  whole 


2>%2    Schools  of  U.  S.  and  Germany 

country  by  the  money  grabbing  that  is  going  on 
in  politics,  trust  organizations,  etc.  And  it  is 
true  that  the  greed  for  money  is  the  worst  feature 
of  American  life,  and  the  most  dangerous  in  its 
influence  on  the  schools,  as  we  have  already  shown 
in  many  ways.  But  in  holding  up  to  execration 
this  fault,  other  national  characteristics  must  not 
be  overlooked. 

Each  nation  can  learn  from  the  other.  Ameri- 
cans, to  be  sure,  can  learn  far  more  from  Germany 
regarding  industrial  and  commercial  schools  than 
the  Germans  can  learn  from  us,  as  this  whole  thesis 
has  shown.  But  when  we  consider  the  high  social 
tone  in  America,  the  enterprising  young  men  with 
great  ambition  and  self-reliance,  a  great  capacity 
for  development,  courageous  and  industrious  in 
their  work,  we  begin  to  realize  why  American 
commerce  is  so  powerful.  Looking  at  the  question 
from  this  standpoint,  German  industrial  and  com- 
mercial school  development  could  in  turn  learn 
much  from  America. 


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